(Circulation. 1999;100:958-966.)
© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Basic Science Reports |
Ischemic Preconditioning and the ß-Adrenergic Signal Transduction Pathway
From the Department of Medical Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Stellenbosch, MRC Experimental Biology Programme, Tygerberg, Republic of South Africa; and the Max Planck Institute, Bad Nauheim, Germany (T.P.).
Correspondence to Prof A. Lochner, Department of Medical Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Stellenbosch, PO Box 19063, Tygerberg 7505, Republic of South Africa. E-mail alo{at}gerga.sun.ac.za
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Abstract |
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Background—Previous studies from our laboratory showed cyclic increases in tissue cAMP during a multiple-cycle preconditioning (PC) protocol, followed by attenuated cAMP accumulation during sustained ischemia. The aim of this study was to determine whether ischemia-induced activation of the ß-adrenergic signaling pathway could act as a trigger in eliciting protection.
Methods and Results—Isolated perfused rat hearts were preconditioned by 3x5 minutes of global ischemia, interspersed by 5 minutes of reperfusion. ß-Adrenergic responsivity was assessed by measurement of tissue cAMP generation after ß-adrenergic agonist administration at the end of the PC protocol. Tissue cAMP, adenylyl cyclase, and protein kinase A (PKA) activities and ß-adrenergic receptor characteristics were assessed at different times. The role of cAMP generation in eliciting PC was studied by investigation of functional recovery during reperfusion after 25 minutes of global ischemia after (1) cAMP increases in the trigger period were prevented with the ß-adrenergic blocker alprenolol 7.5x10-5 mol/L and (2) increases in cAMP were elicited by administration of forskolin 10-7 and 10-6 mol/L or isoproterenol 10-8, 10-7, and 10-6 mol/L. Intermittent ischemia resulted in reduced ß-adrenergic responsivity at the end of the protocol, although Bmax and Kd values of the ß-adrenergic receptor population and adenylyl cyclase and PKA activities were increased. Abolishment of cyclic increases in cAMP before sustained ischemia attenuated myocardial protection against ischemia, whereas agonists elicited protection. No clear correlation between protection and ß-adrenergic desensitization was observed.
Conclusions—Ischemia-induced activation of the ß-adrenergic signaling pathway during preconditioning should also be considered a trigger in eliciting preconditioning.
Key Words: ischemia • reperfusion • receptors, adrenergic, beta
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Introduction |
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Despite considerable uncertainty regarding the exact mechanism whereby preconditioning elicits protection against ischemia, it is generally accepted that it is a receptor-mediated process with protein kinase C (PKC) activation as the common final pathway.1 2 3 However, the role of PKC could not be corroborated by all workers.1 3 As knowledge of preconditioning accumulated, it became apparent that several signal transduction pathways may participate.
Involvement of the ß-adrenergic signal transduction pathway in preconditioning has recently been suggested: we4 and others5 6 have shown that preconditioning attenuates cAMP generation during sustained ischemia in rat and rabbit myocardium. Sandhu et al5 proposed reduced stimulation of the ß-adrenergic receptor secondary to reduced release of norepinephrine7 rather than desensitization as an explanation. However, changes in the different components of the ß-adrenergic signal transduction pathway could also explain the observation. We have recently shown that a multiple-episode preconditioning protocol is characterized by cyclic increases in cAMP, coinciding with opposite changes in phosphodiesterase activity, indicating that this pathway is changed during both preconditioning and sustained ischemia.8
We hypothesized that the repeated elevations of cAMP during short episodes of ischemia were caused by the release of endogenous catecholamines, resulting in downregulation of the ß-adrenergic signal transduction pathway, contributing to attenuation of cAMP generation during sustained ischemia and functional improvement during reperfusion.
The aims of this study were to use a well-characterized model of multiple-episode–induced ischemic preconditioning to evaluate whether (1) treatment with reserpine would abolish the cyclic increases in cAMP; (2) downregulation of the ß-adrenergic signal transduction pathway occurred by evaluation of the ß-adrenergic receptor characteristics, PKA activity, and ß-adrenergic responsiveness of preconditioned myocardial tissue; and (3) abolishment of or agonist-induced cyclic increases in cAMP would prevent or elicit myocardial protection against ischemia, respectively, and how the latter related to ß-adrenergic receptor desensitization and cAMP generation during sustained ischemia.
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Methods |
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Animals
Male Wistar rats weighing 200 to 250 g were used. Before anesthesia (30 mg pentobarbital IP), rats were allowed free access to food and water. This investigation conformed to the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals published by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH publication No. 85-23, revised 1985).
Perfusion Technique
The perfusion technique of the isolated perfused working heart
(not electrically stimulated, preload 15 cm H2O,
afterload 100 cm H2O) and measurement of
mechanical activity were as described previously.9
Krebs-Henseleit bicarbonate solution was used as buffer, containing,
in mmol/L: NaCl 119, NaHCO3 24.9, KCl 4.74,
KH2PO4 1.19,
MgSO4 0.6,
Na2SO4 0.59,
CaCl2 1.25, and glucose 10.
Oxygenation was done with 95%
O2/5% CO2. Drugs were
administered via a side arm into the aortic cannula.
Normothermic zero-flow global ischemia was used for
preconditioning. Mechanical activity was determined by measurement of
aortic flow, coronary flow, heart rate, peak systolic
pressure, and total work performance.
Adenylyl Cyclase and ß-Adrenergic Receptor Assays
Sarcolemmal membranes were prepared by a modification of the
method described by Strasser et al.10 Adenylyl cyclase
activity was determined as described by Salomon et al,11
and radiolabeled cAMP was eluted from alumina columns.12
ß-Receptor characteristics were determined by use of the
ß-antagonist
[125I]iodocyanopindolol as specific ligand as
described by Strasser et al.10 The
Kd and Bmax values of
the ß-adrenergic receptors were calculated by use of the Enzfitter
computer program (Robin J. Leatherbarrow, published by
Elsevier-Biosoft).
ß-Adrenergic Receptor Responsiveness: Biochemical
Analyses
Hearts were freeze-clamped at various times during the
experimental protocol with precooled Wollenberger tongs and immediately
plunged into and stored in liquid nitrogen. cAMP analyses were
done as described before4 with a commercially available
[3H]cAMP assay system (Amersham).
Tissue cAMP-dependent PKA activity was determined with an assay
from Gibco BRL. Frozen tissue was homogenized in an
extraction buffer (5 mmol/L EDTA, 50 mmol/L Tris, pH 7.5) and
centrifuged for 10 minutes at 600g, and the
supernatant was diluted to 
5 µg protein/10 µL extract. Four
assay conditions were used for each sample (with and without
inhibitor and with and without cAMP). Results were
expressed as pmol activated PKA ·
min-1 · mg
protein-1.
The protein content of samples was determined by either the Kaplan-Pedersen13 or Lowry14 technique.
Experimental Protocol
Role of Release of Endogenous
Catecholamines in Causing Cyclic Increases in cAMP
Endogenous catecholamines were
depleted by administration of reserpine 7 mg/kg IP 24 hours before
experimentation (dose according to Reference 1515 ). Hearts from
reserpinized and untreated animals were first perfused retrogradely (15
minutes), then for 15 minutes in the working mode (mimicking the exact
technique used previously).9
Nonpreconditioned (Non-PC) hearts were subsequently
perfused retrogradely for 30 minutes, whereas preconditioned (PC)
hearts were subjected to 3 episodes of 5 minutes of global
ischemia, interspersed by 5 minutes of retrograde reperfusion.
Hearts were freeze-clamped after 30 minutes total perfusion time
(controls) as well as at the end of each 5-minute period of global
ischemia (PC1-, PC2-, and PC3-).
Evaluation of ß-Adrenergic Responsiveness
Non-PC and PC hearts were perfused as described above. At 58
minutes of perfusion time, forskolin 10-6 mol/L
or isoproterenol 10-8,
10-7, or 10-6 mol/L was
added to the perfusate, and the hearts were freeze-clamped
after 2 minutes for cAMP determination. Control hearts were
freeze-clamped after 60 minutes of perfusion without administration of
drugs (see Figure 2A
for protocol).
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Similar experiments were performed on rats pretreated with pertussis toxin in saline (25 µg/kg)16 or vehicle only 24 hours before experimentation with isoproterenol 10-7 mol/L.
Characterization of Changes in ß-Adrenergic Signaling Pathway
During Preconditioning
Non-PC hearts were perfused as described above and
freeze-clamped after 30 and 60 minutes total perfusion time. PC hearts
were freeze-clamped after 30 minutes total perfusion time (before onset
of preconditioning), at PC1-, PC2-, and PC3-, and at the end of
PC1+, PC2+, and PC3+ for determination of ß-adrenergic receptor
characteristics and adenylyl cyclase and PKA activities.
Role of ß-Adrenergic Receptor Activation in Eliciting
Protection
To assess ß-adrenergic receptor blockade during
preconditioning, pilot experiments showed that the nonselective
ß1/ß2-adrenergic
blocker alprenolol 7.5x10-5 mol/L abolished the
increase in cAMP induced by intermittent ischemia and that 10
minutes of washout was sufficient to remove the drug totally (see
Figure 3A for protocol).
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Control hearts were perfused for 115 minutes. In a separate series, alprenolol was administered at 20 minutes total perfusion time for 3 episodes of 5 minutes interspersed by 5-minute periods of perfusion with buffer, followed by perfusion in the retrograde (75 minutes) and working (10 minutes) modes.
Non-PC hearts were perfused as above, in the absence or presence of alprenolol. After the last administration of the drug, the hearts were perfused with buffer for 10 minutes, followed by 25 minutes of global ischemia and 20 minutes of reperfusion (10 minutes retrograde, 10 minutes working heart).
PC hearts were preconditioned with 3x5 minutes of ischemia in the absence or presence of alprenolol. Alprenolol was administered 5 minutes before the onset of PC1- and during PC1+ and PC2+. After PC3-, the drug was washed out for 10 minutes before the onset of ischemia. Evaluation of the recovery potential was done by addition of epinephrine 10-6 mol/L at the end of each protocol and monitoring of function for 10 minutes.
To assess agonist-induced increases in cAMP and functional recovery after 25 minutes of global ischemia, hearts were perfused retrogradely for 15 minutes, followed by 15 minutes of working heart. In separate groups, tissue cAMP was then elevated experimentally by (1) 3x5 minutes of global ischemia, (2) forskolin 10-7 or 10-6 mol/L for 1x5 or 3x5 minutes, and (3) isoproterenol 10-8 or 10-7 mol/L for 1x5 or 3x5 minutes.
Non-PC hearts were perfused retrogradely for 30 minutes after the
initial stabilization period. All hearts were then subjected to 25
minutes of global ischemia and 20 minutes of reperfusion for
evaluation of functional recovery (for protocol, see Figure 4A).
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ß-Adrenergic receptor responsiveness of the above groups was
assessed by measurements of tissue cAMP (1) before onset of sustained
ischemia, with isoproterenol 10-7 mol/L;
and (2) at the end of 25 minutes of global ischemia (for
protocol, see Figures 5A and 6A).
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Statistics
The number of samples in each group studied is listed in the
table and figures. All data are given as the mean and SEM. Multiple
comparisons were analyzed by 1-way ANOVA, and the Bonferroni
correction was applied.
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Results |
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cAMP During Preconditioning: Role of Endogenous Catecholamines
Hearts of nonreserpinized rats subjected to preconditioning exhibited increases in tissue cAMP similar to those previously described,4 whereas depletion of catecholamines by prior reserpination abolished these increases at every time point studied (Figure 1
).
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Responsiveness of the ß-Adrenergic Signal Transduction
Pathway
Isoproterenol 10-8,
10-7, or 10-6 mol/L
caused a significant increase in cAMP content of Non-PC hearts compared
with untreated control hearts, whereas cAMP of all PC groups remained
unchanged (Figure 2
). Forskolin elicited
a similar 2-fold increase in tissue cAMP in both Non-PC and PC hearts,
indicating that a change had been induced at the ß-adrenergic
receptor level. The diminished response to ß-adrenergic stimulation
was not due to increased Gi protein activity,
because cAMP generation in response to isoproterenol
10-7 mol/L of hearts from pertussis
toxin–treated rats did not differ from hearts of untreated
animals.
Changes in ß-Adrenergic Signaling Pathway During
Preconditioning
Preconditioning caused a gradual increase in receptor density
(Bmax) and Kd (ie,
decrease in affinity), which became significant at PC3- (Table 1). At the end of preconditioning,
ie, immediately preceding sustained ischemia,
Bmax was increased by 39% and affinity decreased
by 35.5%.
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Although adenylyl cyclase activity increased significantly from PC1- to PC3-, it was reduced at PC3+. cAMP-dependent PKA activity followed a pattern similar to that of adenylyl cyclase activity.
ß-Adrenergic Receptor Blockade and Preconditioning-Induced
Protection
Transient administration of alprenolol
7.5x10-5 mmol during the preconditioning
protocol prevented the characteristic increase in cAMP (preconditioning
without alprenolol: controls 302±26, PC1 to 398±8*, and PC3 to
392±26*, *P<0.05 versus controls; preconditioning with
alprenolol: controls 264±16, PC1 to 310±20, and PC3 to 297±17 pmol/g
wet wt; n=5 per series). Alprenolol had no effect on mechanical
recovery during reperfusion of non-PC hearts: both treated and
untreated hearts failed to produce aorta output (Figure 3). The functional recovery of hearts
preconditioned in the presence of alprenolol was significantly less
than that of untreated PC hearts but better than that of Non-PC hearts.
Although the cardiac output of both PC groups could be increased by
administration of epinephrine, it remained lower in the
alprenolol-treated hearts. This was not a drug effect, because the
response to epinephrine of control hearts treated with
alprenolol but not subjected to ischemia was similar to that of
untreated hearts (results not shown).
Protection Due to Cyclic Increases in cAMP
Pilot studies showed that forskolin had a dose-dependent effect on
cAMP: compared with control values of 330±48, forskolin
10-8, 10-7, and
10-6 mmol/L administered for 5 minutes
caused an elevation of cAMP to 363±12, 539±24, and 1231±16 pmol/g
wet wt, respectively (n=3 per series) (Figure 4). When administered repeatedly,
forskolin increased cAMP to the same extent every time. Forskolin
10-8 (results not shown) and
10-7 mol/L (Figure 4) administered either
once or 3 times failed to improve functional recovery compared with
Non-PC hearts. However, similar treatment with forskolin
10-6 mmol/L significantly improved
functional recovery during reperfusion, although the protection was
less than that of ischemic preconditioning.
Administration of isoproterenol 10-8 and 10-7 mol/L for 5 minutes increased tissue cAMP to 428±26 and 1036±55 pmol/g wet wt, respectively, causing significant improvement in functional recovery (compared with Non-PC hearts) and protection similar to that observed with ischemic preconditioning. However, administration of isoproterenol for 3x5 minutes resulted in no increases in cAMP after the first administration, causing complete mechanical failure upon reperfusion.
ß-Adrenergic Receptor Responsiveness Before the Onset of
Sustained Ischemia and cAMP Generation During Sustained
Ischemia
Ischemic PC, forskolin 10-6 mol/L,
3x5 minutes, and isoproterenol 10-7 mol/L, 1x5
minutes resulted in significant desensitization of the ß-adrenergic
response at the onset of sustained ischemia and a significant
reduction in cAMP accumulation at the end of 25 minutes of
ischemia (Figures 5 and 6). Forskolin 10-7
mol/L (3x5 or 1x5 minutes), forskolin 10-6
mol/L (1x5 minutes), and isoproterenol 10-8
mol/L (1x5 minutes) did not cause ß-adrenergic receptor
desensitization and reduced cAMP accumulation during 25 minutes of
sustained ischemia.
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Discussion |
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The results suggest that the cyclic changes in cAMP levels and PKA activation during the preconditioning protocol may indeed contribute to desensitization of the ß-adrenergic receptor and subsequent protection against ischemic damage.
What Causes the Cyclic Increases in cAMP During
Preconditioning?
Our data suggest that release of endogenous
catecholamines is mainly responsible for the cyclic
increases in tissue cAMP and PKA activity during preconditioning: prior
reserpination and ß-adrenergic blockade with alprenolol both
abolished cAMP generation at PC1-, PC2-, and PC3-. The findings that
release of norepinephrine occurred within 2 minutes of
ischemia in the rat heart17 and that a substantial
reduction in synaptic norepinephrine content occurred
during brief ischemia, which was terminated upon
reperfusion,18 support our findings.
Other mechanisms that may be involved are (1) adenylyl cyclase activation, probably due to PKC activation,10 and (2) upregulation of the ß-adrenergic receptor due to loss of ATP.10 However, cAMP generation in response to ß-adrenergic receptor stimulation by norepinephrine will become less as affinity of the receptor for its ligand is reduced. Another possibility is a marked reduction in the activities of both cAMP and cGMP phosphodiesterases during PC1-, PC2-, and PC3-.8
Attenuation of the ß-Adrenergic Response to Sustained
Ischemia: ß-Adrenergic Desensitization
Although Sandhu et al5 could not demonstrate
reduced ß-adrenergic receptor sensitivity in a rabbit model, our data
clearly show that downregulation of the ß-adrenergic signaling
pathway can be attributed to desensitization of the ß-adrenergic
receptor: isoproterenol elicited a marked increase in cAMP in non-PC
hearts but not in PC hearts, whereas forskolin caused similar increases
in cAMP in both groups. Pertussis toxin pretreatment failed to increase
cAMP in PC hearts, excluding a role for Gi
protein.
The following situation thus prevails: a significant (39%) increase in Bmax and a reduction (35%) in the affinity of the ß-adrenergic receptor for its ligand concomitant with normalization of adenylyl cyclase and phosphodiesterase activities. Clearly, the reduced affinity of the receptor for its ligand overrides the effect of the increase in Bmax. Desensitization can be mediated by changes in the functional state of the receptor induced by phosphorylation19 20 and by the number of receptors present on the cell surface.19 The significant elevation in PKA activity could be particularly important in the desensitization process.19 21 Also, phosphorylation of the receptor by the ß-adrenergic receptor kinases, particularly ß-ARK-1 (or GRK2), during ischemia22 may be involved. The role of the latter kinases in preconditioning is not known.
Other factors that may also contribute to the reduction in cAMP during ischemia are (1) protection of myocardial autonomic nerve terminals by preconditioning,23 (2) reduced release of endogenous catecholamines during sustained ischemia,7 and (3) the significant increase in cAMP and cGMP phosphodiesterase activities during sustained ischemia in PC hearts.8 Reduced accumulation of cAMP may conceivably be protective because of the reduction in energy demand and calcium influx.
Mechanism of Protection: cAMP Related?
The question we addressed was whether the cyclic increases
in cAMP (and thus PKA activation) occurring during preconditioning are
involved in eliciting protection against ischemia. Two
possibilities should be considered: cAMP/PKA may play a role in
ß-adrenergic desensitization and/or may phosphorylate an
unknown target downstream. We investigated the former possibility.
Our results underscore the significance of ß-adrenergic
stimulation during the PC protocol: abolishment of the increases in
cAMP during PC attenuated functional recovery during reperfusion
(Figure 3). The reverse approach was to establish whether
repeated generation of cAMP before the onset of sustained
ischemia could elicit protection. Indeed, such a relationship
could be established, depending on the mode of administration and
concentration of the agonists (Figure 4).
No clear correlation between elevation in tissue cAMP levels before sustained ischemia and subsequent protection was observed. Although isoproterenol 10-8 mol/L was capable of eliciting protection at cAMP levels comparable to those observed during a PC protocol (428±26 versus 398±8 pmol/g wet wt, respectively), further elevation to 1036±55 pmol/g wet wt by isoproterenol 10-7 mol/L did not further enhance recovery. Furthermore, only at a concentration of 10-6 mol/L and cAMP levels of >1000 pmol/g wet wt did forskolin elicit protection. However, this may be because forskolin increases cAMP in a compartmentalized manner.24 The complete mechanical failure observed after repeated stimulation with isoproterenol may be a result of the well-established harmful effects of excess cAMP.25
The mechanism of protection elicited by ß-adrenergic agonists
is complex. With preconditioning or isoproterenol
10-7 mol/L, 1x5 minutes, or forskolin
10-6 mol/L, 3x5 minutes, the following pattern
emerged: significant desensitization of the ß-adrenergic receptor
(Figure 5) and a reduced cAMP content after 25 minutes of
sustained ischemia, whereas the converse was true for forskolin
10-7 mol/L, 1x5 minutes. However, with
isoproterenol 10-8 mol/L or forskolin
10-6 mol/L administered for 1x5 minutes,
functional protection was not associated with either of the above. In
view of these discrepancies, we suggest the following possible
mechanisms: (1) the activation of PKA observed in all agonist-treated
hearts (results not shown) may act via desensitization of the
ß-adrenergic receptor and/or phosphorylation of a
protective protein and (2) agonist-induced increases in heart rate:
rapid pacing can protect against ischemia via NO
production.26 27 It is possible that both factors
play a role in the protection observed.
PKA Versus PKC
The results obtained provide proof that the protection elicited by
PC may be partially dependent on activation of the ß-adrenergic
signaling pathway, which implies a role for PKA. This possibility is
supported by previous findings that repeated stimulation with
norepinephrine or isoproterenol mimics ischemic
preconditioning.28 Also, repeated ß-adrenergic stress
induced a long-term cardiac adaptation manifested by a reduction of
harmful ischemic changes due to cardiac stress 24 and 48
hours after preconditioning.29
Although PKC activation has long been advocated as the main signal
transduction pathway in PC, we30 and others (reviewed in
References 1 and 31 3 ) could find no evidence for this. The finding that
ß-adrenergic blockade effectively reduced a 3-cycle PC-induced
protection (Figure 4), as opposed to the failure of
1-adrenergic or PKC blockade to abolish
protection,30 is indicative of a role for this pathway in
our model.
Conclusions
Finally, in view of the results obtained in the present study,
we propose that, in addition to stimulation of G protein–coupled
receptors such as the muscarinic, angiotensin II, or opioid
receptors,1 2 or PKC activation, ischemia-induced
activation of the ß-adrenergic signaling pathway should also be
considered as a trigger or contributory factor in eliciting PC. The
exact role of PKA still needs to be resolved.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by the MRC, South Africa, Harry Crossley Trust.
Received December 11, 1998; revision received April 19, 1999; accepted April 27, 1999.
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A. Lochner Sarcolemmal permeability changes during ischaemia and reperfusion: release of survival factors Cardiovasc Res, September 1, 2008; 79(4): 545 - 546. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. Fukasawa, H. Nishida, T. Sato, M. Miyazaki, and H. Nakaya 6-[4-(1-Cyclohexyl-1H-tetrazol-5-yl)butoxy]-3,4-dihydro-2-(1H)quinolinone (Cilostazol), a Phosphodiesterase Type 3 Inhibitor, Reduces Infarct Size via Activation of Mitochondrial Ca2+-Activated K+ Channels in Rabbit Hearts J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., July 1, 2008; 326(1): 100 - 104. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Nishida, T. Sato, M. Miyazaki, and H. Nakaya Infarct size limitation by adrenomedullin: protein kinase A but not PI3-kinase is linked to mitochondrial KCa channels Cardiovasc Res, January 15, 2008; 77(2): 398 - 405. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M.-H. Huang, H.-Q. Wang, W. R. Roeske, Y. Birnbaum, Y. Wu, N.-P. Yang, Y. Lin, Y. Ye, D. J. McAdoo, M. G. Hughes, et al. Mediating {delta}-opioid-initiated heart protection via the beta2-adrenergic receptor: role of the intrinsic cardiac adrenergic cell Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, July 1, 2007; 293(1): H376 - H384. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. F. Spear, S. K. Prabu, D. Galati, H. Raza, H. K. Anandatheerthavarada, and N. G. Avadhani beta1-Adrenoreceptor activation contributes to ischemia-reperfusion damage as well as playing a role in ischemic preconditioning Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, May 1, 2007; 292(5): H2459 - H2466. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Sadayappan, H. Osinska, R. Klevitsky, J. N. Lorenz, M. Sargent, J. D. Molkentin, C. E. Seidman, J. G. Seidman, and J. Robbins Cardiac myosin binding protein c phosphorylation is cardioprotective PNAS, November 7, 2006; 103(45): 16918 - 16923. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. N. Peart and G. J. Gross Cardioprotective effects of acute and chronic opioid treatment are mediated via different signaling pathways Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, October 1, 2006; 291(4): H1746 - H1753. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Mieno, H. Horimoto, K. Kishida, S. Horimoto, and S. Sasaki Landiolol Enhances Effect of Ischemic Preconditioning in Isolated Rabbit Hearts Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann, June 1, 2006; 14(3): 239 - 243. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. J. Hausenloy and D. M. Yellon Survival kinases in ischemic preconditioning and postconditioning Cardiovasc Res, May 1, 2006; 70(2): 240 - 253. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. Garcia-Dorado, A. Rodriguez-Sinovas, M. Ruiz-Meana, J. Inserte, L. Agullo, and A. Cabestrero The end-effectors of preconditioning protection against myocardial cell death secondary to ischemia-reperfusion Cardiovasc Res, May 1, 2006; 70(2): 274 - 285. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Inserte, D. Garcia-Dorado, V. Hernando, I. Barba, and J. Soler-Soler Ischemic preconditioning prevents calpain-mediated impairment of Na+/K+-ATPase activity during early reperfusion Cardiovasc Res, May 1, 2006; 70(2): 364 - 373. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Mieno, F. Watanabe, Y. Sawa, and H. Horimoto Gene transfer of {beta}2 adrenergic receptor enhances cardioprotective effects of ischemic preconditioning in rat hearts after myocardial infarction Interactive CardioVascular and Thoracic Surgery, June 1, 2005; 4(3): 163 - 167. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Robinet, G. Hoizey, and H. Millart PI 3-kinase, protein kinase C, and protein kinase A are involved in the trigger phase of {beta}1-adrenergic preconditioning Cardiovasc Res, June 1, 2005; 66(3): 530 - 542. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. Sato, T. Saito, N. Saegusa, and H. Nakaya Mitochondrial Ca2+-Activated K+ Channels in Cardiac Myocytes: A Mechanism of the Cardioprotective Effect and Modulation by Protein Kinase A Circulation, January 18, 2005; 111(2): 198 - 203. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Inserte, D. Garcia-Dorado, M. Ruiz-Meana, L. Agullo, P. Pina, and J. Soler-Soler Ischemic preconditioning attenuates calpain-mediated degradation of structural proteins through a protein kinase A-dependent mechanism Cardiovasc Res, October 1, 2004; 64(1): 105 - 114. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Chen, L. L. Liu, L. L. Ye, C. McGuckin, S. Tamowski, P. Scowen, H. Tian, K. Murray, W. J. Hatton, and D. Duan Targeted Inactivation of Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator Chloride Channel Gene Prevents Ischemic Preconditioning in Isolated Mouse Heart Circulation, August 10, 2004; 110(6): 700 - 704. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Sanada, H. Asanuma, O. Tsukamoto, T. Minamino, K. Node, S. Takashima, T. Fukushima, A. Ogai, Y. Shinozaki, M. Fujita, et al. Protein Kinase A as Another Mediator of Ischemic Preconditioning Independent of Protein Kinase C Circulation, July 6, 2004; 110(1): 51 - 57. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. Zaugg, M. C. Schaub, and P. Foex Myocardial injury and its prevention in the perioperative setting Br. J. Anaesth., July 1, 2004; 93(1): 21 - 33. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A. K. Gamperl, H. A. Faust, B. Dougher, and K. J. Rodnick Hypoxia tolerance and preconditioning are not additive in the trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) heart J. Exp. Biol., June 15, 2004; 207(14): 2497 - 2505. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Schulz and G. Heusch Connexin 43 and ischemic preconditioning Cardiovasc Res, May 1, 2004; 62(2): 335 - 344. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 F. Nicolini, C. Beghi, C. Muscari, A. Agostinelli, A. M. Budillon, I. Spaggiari, and T. Gherli Myocardial protection in adult cardiac surgery: current options and future challenges Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg., December 1, 2003; 24(6): 986 - 993. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Zaugg, E. Lucchinetti, C. Garcia, T. Pasch, D. R. Spahn, and M. C. Schaub Anaesthetics and cardiac preconditioning. Part II. Clinical implications Br. J. Anaesth., October 1, 2003; 91(4): 566 - 576. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Mieno, H. Horimoto, F. Watanabe, Y. Nakai, E. Furuya, and S. Sasaki Potent adenylate cyclase agonist forskolin restores myoprotective effects of ischemic preconditioning in rat hearts after myocardial infarction Ann. Thorac. Surg., October 1, 2002; 74(4): 1213 - 1218. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. Suematsu, T. Ohtsuka, H. Horimoto, K. Maeda, Y. Nakai, S. Mieno, and S. Takamoto Long-term treatment with nipradilol, a nitric oxide-releasing {beta}-adrenergic blocker, enhances postischemic recovery and limits infarct size Ann. Thorac. Surg., January 1, 2002; 73(1): 173 - 179. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Sanada, M. Kitakaze, P. J. Papst, H. Asanuma, K. Node, S. Takashima, M. Asakura, H. Ogita, Y. Liao, Y. Sakata, et al. Cardioprotective Effect Afforded by Transient Exposure to Phosphodiesterase III Inhibitors: The Role of Protein Kinase A and p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Circulation, August 7, 2001; 104(6): 705 - 710. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Lochner, E. Marais, S. Genade, and J. A. Moolman Nitric oxide: a trigger for classic preconditioning? Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, December 1, 2000; 279(6): H2752 - H2765. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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