(Circulation. 2000;102:706.)
© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.
Basic Science Reports |
Effects of a K+ Channel Opener to Reduce Transmural Dispersion of Repolarization and Prevent Torsade de Pointes in LQT1, LQT2, and LQT3 Models of the Long-QT Syndrome
Presented in part at the 19th Scientific Sessions of the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology, San Diego, Calif, May 9, 1998, and published in abstract form (Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1998;21:846).
From the Masonic Medical Research Laboratory, Utica, NY.
Correspondence to Dr Charles Antzelevitch, Masonic Medical Research Laboratory, 2150 Bleecker St, Utica, NY 13501-1787. E-mail ca{at}mmrl.edu
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Abstract |
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Background—This study examines the effects of nicorandil, a K+ channel opener, on transmural dispersion of repolarization (TDR) and induction of torsade de pointes (TdP) under conditions mimicking the LQT1, LQT2, and LQT3 forms of the congenital long-QT syndrome (LQTS).
Methods and Results—Transmembrane action potentials of epicardial, M, and endocardial cells were recorded simultaneously from an arterially perfused wedge of canine left ventricle together with a transmural ECG. Chromanol 293B (30 µmol/L) was used to block IKs (LQT1 model). Isoproterenol (50 to 100 nmol/L) was used to mimic an increase in ß-adrenergic tone, d-sotalol (100 µmol/L) to block IKr (LQT2 model), and ATX-II (20 nmol/L) to augment late INa (LQT3 model). Isoproterenol+chromanol 293B, d-sotalol, and ATX-II produced preferential prolongation of the action potential duration at 90% repolarization (APD90) of the M cell, an increase of TDR, and spontaneous as well as stimulation-induced TdP (LQT1, 3/6; LQT2, 3/6; LQT3, 5/6). Nicorandil (2 to 20 µmol/L) abbreviated the QT interval and APD90 of the 3 cell types in the 3 models. High concentrations (10 to 20 µmol/L) completely reversed the effects of 293B±isoproterenol and those of d-sotalol to increase APD90 and TDR and to induce TdP in LQT1 and LQT2 models. Nicorandil 20 µmol/L reversed only 50% of the effect of ATX-II and failed to completely suppress TdP in the LQT3 model (5/6 to 3/6).
Conclusions—Our data suggest that K+ channel openers may be capable of abbreviating the long QT interval, reducing TDR, and preventing spontaneous and stimulation-induced TdP when congenital or acquired LQTS is secondary to reduced IKr or IKs but less so when it is due to augmented late INa.
Key Words: long-QT syndrome • arrhythmia • genes • nicorandil • cells
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Introduction |
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Recent studies have identified 5 forms of the congenital long-QT syndrome (LQTS) caused by mutations in ion channel genes located on chromosomes 3, 7, 11, and 21.1 2 3 Mutations in KCNQ1 and KCNE1 are responsible for defects in the slowly activating component of the delayed rectifier potassium current (IKs), which underlies the LQT1 and LQT5 forms of the LQTS, whereas mutations in HERG and KCNE2 are responsible for defects in the rapidly activating component of the delayed rectifier potassium current (IKr) responsible for LQT2 and LQT6. Mutations in SCN5A alter the function of the sodium channel (INa) responsible for LQT3.
Linkage of gene mutations to ion channel dysfunction is a first step in the formulation of a gene-specific approach to therapy in congenital LQTS. Identification of agents that exert differential actions in the various genotypes of LQTS is a next step. Schwartz and coworkers4 demonstrated that the sodium channel blocker mexiletine is more effective in shortening the QT interval in LQT3 patients with sodium channel defect than in either LQT1 or LQT2 patients with potassium channel defects. Compton et al5 showed that potassium infusion abbreviated the QT interval in LQT2 patients with an IKr defect. More recently, Shimizu and coworkers6 reported that nicorandil, a K+ channel opener, abbreviated the QT interval and monophasic action potential duration prolonged by epinephrine infusion in LQT1 patients with the IKs defect. However, shortening of the QT interval by these interventions is not necessarily congruent with their efficacy to decrease arrhythmic risk and sudden cardiac death.
We have developed an arterially perfused canine left ventricular wedge preparation in which we are able to simultaneously record transmembrane action potentials from epicardial, midmyocardial (M), and endocardial sites along the transmural surface using floating glass microelectrodes together with a transmural pseudo-ECG.7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 The wedge is capable of developing and sustaining a variety of arrhythmias, including torsade de pointes (TdP).9 11 12 13 14 In the present study, we use this preparation to examine the effect of nicorandil, a K+ channel opener, to decrease transmural dispersion of repolarization (TDR) and suppress TdP under control conditions as well as conditions mimicking the LQT1, LQT2, and LQT3 forms of congenital LQTS.
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Methods |
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Arterially Perfused Wedge of Canine Left Ventricle
The methods used for isolation, perfusion, and recording of transmembrane activity from the arterially perfused canine left ventricular wedge preparation, as well as the viability and electrical stability of the preparation, are detailed in previous studies.7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Time controls have demonstrated the electrical stability of the wedge preparations for a period of >6 hours.
Briefly, dogs weighing 20 to 25 kg were anticoagulated with heparin and
anesthetized with pentobarbital (30 to 35 mg/kg IV). The chest
was opened via a left thoracotomy, and the heart was excised and placed
in a cardioplegic solution consisting of cold (4°C) or
room-temperature Tyrode’s solution containing 8.5 mmol/L
[K+]o. Transmural wedges
with dimensions of 
2x1.5x0.9 to 3x2x1.5 cm were dissected from
the left ventricle. The tissue was cannulated via a small (diameter
100 µm) native branch of the left anterior descending
coronary artery and perfused with cardioplegic solution.
Unperfused tissue, readily identified by its maintained red appearance
(erythrocytes not washed away), was carefully removed with a razor
blade. The preparation was then placed in a small tissue bath and
arterially perfused with Tyrode’s solution of the
following composition (mmol/L): NaCl 129, KCl 4,
NaH2PO4 0.9,
NaHCO3 20, CaCl2 1.8,
MgSO4 0.5, and glucose 5.5, buffered with 95%
O2 and 5% CO2 (37±1°C).
The perfusate was delivered to the artery by a roller pump
(Cole Parmer Instrument Co). Perfusion pressure was monitored with a
pressure transducer (World Precision Instruments, Inc) and maintained
between 40 and 50 mm Hg by adjustment of the perfusion flow
rate.
Recordings of a Transmural ECG and Transmembrane
Action Potentials
The ventricular wedges were stimulated with bipolar
silver electrodes insulated except at the tips and applied to the
endocardial surface (S1). A transmural ECG was
recorded by use of 3 mol/L KCl-agar electrodes (1.1 mm ID).
The electrodes were placed in the Tyrode’s solution bathing the
preparation, 1.0 to 1.5 cm from the epicardial and endocardial
surfaces of the preparation, along the same vector as the transmembrane
recordings (epicardium, + pole). The electrical field of the
preparation as a whole was measured with this technique. Thus, the ECG
registration represents a pseudo-ECG of that part of the left
ventricle. To differentiate it from local electrogram activity, we
refer to it as an ECG in the remainder of the text.
Transmembrane action potentials were recorded
simultaneously from the epicardial, M, and endocardial
sites by use of 3 to 4 separate intracellular floating microelectrodes
(DC resistance, 10 to 20 M
; 2.7 mol/L KCl). Epicardial and
endocardial action potentials were recorded from the epicardial and
endocardial surfaces of the preparations at positions approximating the
transmural axis of the ECG recording. M-cell action potentials
were recorded at the site along the same axis at which action
potential duration (APD) was longest. All amplified signals were
digitized, stored on magnetic media and WORM-CD, and analyzed
with Spike 2 (Cambridge Electronic Design).
Study Protocols
The IKs blocker chromanol 293B
(30 µmol/L) was used to create a model of
LQT1,9 14 and isoproterenol (50 to 100 nmol/L) was
used to mimic increased ß-adrenergic tone. The
IKr blocker d-sotalol (100
µmol/L) was used to create a model that mimics
LQT2.8 13 14 ATX-II (20 nmol/L), an agent that
augments late INa, was used to mimic
LQT3.8 12 13 14 The validity of these pharmacological
models as surrogates for the congenital syndromes has been demonstrated
in myocyte,15 wedge,8 9 11 12 13 14 and in vivo
studies.16 17
We examined (1) the dose-dependent effects of nicorandil (2, 5, 10, and 20 µmol/L) on the QT interval, the APD, and the TDR and (2) the effects of nicorandil to suppress the development of spontaneous as well as programmed electrical stimulation (PES)–induced TdP.
Control measurements were generally obtained after 1 hour of equilibration. The chromanol 293B, d-sotalol, and ATX-II data were collected for a period of up to 1 hour starting 1 hour after addition of the respective drug, and nicorandil data were recorded after 20 minutes of exposure to each concentration of drug. In our previous study, dramatic increases of TDR and induction of TdP were seen only in the presence of both isoproterenol and chromanol 293B in the LQT1 model.9 Therefore, isoproterenol was infused both in the presence of 293B and after each dose of nicorandil, and isoproterenol data were collected at 2 minutes after addition of isoproterenol, approximating the maximal influence of the catecholamine.
APD was measured at 90% repolarization (APD90). TDR was defined as the difference between the longest and the shortest repolarization times (activation time plus APD90) of transmembrane action potentials recorded across the wall (typically, M-cell minus epicardial repolarization time). The QT interval was defined as the time between QRS onset and the point at which the final downslope of the T wave crossed the baseline. In all figures, a graphic correlation of transmembrane and ECG activity was achieved by dropping a dotted line from the point of full repolarization of each action potential (APD100 approximated by eye) to the ECG trace.
The development of spontaneous and PES-induced TdP was assessed in the absence of any drugs (control conditions); in the presence of chromanol 293B with or without isoproterenol, d-sotalol, or ATX-II; and after the further addition of nicorandil (2, 5, 10, and 20 µmol/L). PES-induced arrhythmias were evaluated by use of single extrastimuli (S2) applied to the epicardial surface of the wedge. The vulnerable window was defined as the range of S1-S2 intervals during which a single S2 could induce TdP.
Statistics
Statistical analysis of the data was performed with a
Student’s t test for paired data or ANOVA coupled with
Scheffé’s test, as appropriate. Data are expressed as mean±SD
values, except for those shown in the figures, which are expressed as
mean±SEM values. Significance was defined as a value of
P<0.05.
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Results |
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Effect of Chromanol 293B±Isoproterenol, d-Sotalol, and ATX-II on QT Interval, APD, and TDR
The Table
shows the effects
of chromanol 293B in the absence and presence of isoproterenol (LQT1
model), d-sotalol (LQT2 model), and ATX-II (LQT3 model) on
the QT interval; the APD90 of the endocardial, M,
and epicardial cells; and the TDR at a basic cycle length (BCL) of 2000
ms. Chromanol 293B (30 µmol/L) produced a
homogeneous prolongation of APD90 of
the 3 cell types, thus prolonging the QT interval with no major change
in the width of the T wave or in TDR (Figure 1A). Isoproterenol (50 to 100 nmol/L) in
the continued presence of chromanol 293B abbreviated the
APD90 of epicardial and endocardial cells but
prolonged that of the M cells, resulting in a significant increase in
TDR and a widening of the T wave, as commonly observed in LQT1 patients
(Figure 1B). d-Sotalol (100 µmol/L) produced a
preferential prolongation of APD90 of the M cell,
thus causing an increase in the QT interval and TDR (Figure 2A). ATX-II (20 nmol/L) also prolonged
the M cell APD90 more than that of the epicardial
and endocardial cells, resulting in a dramatic increase in the QT
interval and TDR (Figure 2B).
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Effect of Nicorandil on QT Interval, APD, and TDR in the LQT1,
LQT2, and LQT3 Models
Figure 1
illustrates the effects of nicorandil in the LQT1
model in the absence and presence of isoproterenol. Composite data are
shown in Figure 3. Nicorandil (2
to 20 µmol/L) dose-dependently abbreviated the QT interval and
the APD90 of both cells; 20 µmol/L
nicorandil completely reversed the effect of 293B in the absence and
presence of isoproterenol to prolong the QT interval and
APD90 and to increase the TDR.
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) and epicardial (
) cells, and TDR time
(•, RT) in LQT1 model with (C and D) or without (A and B)
isoproterenol (Iso). In both cases, 2 to 20 µmol/L nicorandil
dose-dependently abbreviated QT interval and APD90 of both
cells; 20 µmol/L nicorandil completely reversed effect of
chromanol 293B alone (A and B) and in presence of isoproterenol (C and
D) to prolong QT interval and APD90 and to increase TDR.
*P<0.0005 vs control (C); 
P<0.05,
Figure 2 illustrates the effects of nicorandil in the LQT2 and
LQT3 models. Composite data are shown in Figure 4. Nicorandil (2 to 20 µmol/L)
dose-dependently abbreviated the QT interval and the
APD90 of both cells; 20 µmol/L nicorandil
completely reversed the effect of d-sotalol in the LQT2
model (Figure 2A). In contrast, 20 µmol/L nicorandil
reversed only 50% of the effect of ATX-II in the LQT3 model (Figure 2B). An incomplete reversal (
50%) was observed in LQT3
preparations with both large and small TDR.
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Figure 5 graphically illustrates the
normalized dose-response relationships (semilog scale) of nicorandil on
the APD90 of the M (Figure 5A) and
epicardial (Figure 5B) cells, the QT interval (Figure 5C), and TDR (Figure 5D) in the 3 models. Nicorandil
20 µmol/L totally reversed the effect of the drugs in LQT1 and
LQT2 but reversed only 50% of the effect of ATX-II (LQT3).
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). Effects of drugs are normalized
so that 100% value represents maximum prolongation produced by
these agents. Each panel shows dose-response relationship (semilog
scale) for effect of nicorandil to reverse effect of drugs. In LQT1 and
LQT2 models, 20 µmol/L nicorandil totally reversed effect of
these drugs. In contrast, in LQT3 model, 20 µmol/L nicorandil
reversed only 50% of effect of ATX-II.
Effect of Nicorandil on TdP in the LQT1, LQT2, and LQT3
Models
Under control conditions and in the presence of chromanol 293B
alone, neither spontaneous nor PES-induced TdP was observed other than
an occasional extrasystole. Spontaneous TdP developed in 1 of 6
LQT1+isoproterenol, 2 of 6 LQT2, and 3 of 6 LQT3 preparations (Figures 6A and 7).
A single extrastimulus reproducibly induced TdP in 3 of 6
LQT1+isoproterenol, 3 of 6 LQT2, and 5 of 6 LQT3 preparations (Figures 6B and 7). In the LQT1 and LQT2 models, relatively low
concentrations of nicorandil (5 µmol/L) partially suppressed
both spontaneous and PES-induced TdP and reduced the vulnerable window
(LQT1+isoproterenol, 32±9 to 13±5 ms; LQT2, 33±10 to 17±5 ms) in
conjunction with a decrease in TDR (LQT1+isoproterenol, 84±17 to
68±19 ms; LQT2, 74±9 to 55±11 ms). Higher concentrations of
nicorandil (10 to 20 µmol/L) completely suppressed spontaneous
and PES-induced TdP in these models (Figure 7A and 7B). In
contrast, 5 µmol/L nicorandil did not prevent TdP or reduce the
vulnerable window (81±27 to 78±29 ms) and TDR (123±16 to 110±24 ms)
in the LQT3 model. Even the highest concentration of nicorandil
(20 µmol/L) failed to totally suppress TdP in this model (Figure 7C).
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Discussion |
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Differential Effect of a K+ Channel Opener on Repolarization in LQT1, LQT2, and LQT3 Syndromes
LQTS is a hereditary disorder characterized by pathophysiological prolongation of the QT interval, polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (TdP), syncope, and sudden cardiac death.18 19 20 Several clinical studies have presented evidence in support of gene-specific therapy in LQTS.4 5 6 However, previous studies involving canine wedge preparations have shown that sodium channel block with mexiletine is effective in decreasing TDR and in suppressing TdP equally in the 3 syndromes, even though abbreviation of the QT interval is more pronounced in LQT3 than in either LQT1 or LQT2.8 9 The results suggested that an abbreviation of the QT interval by specific interventions is not necessarily consistent with their effectiveness in reducing arrhythmic risk and that reduction of TDR is a more reliable marker.
In the present study, nicorandil was found to be much more effective in preventing TdP in LQT1 and LQT2 than in LQT3. On a percentage basis, nicorandil-induced QT abbreviation and TDR reduction was greater in LQT1 and LQT2. On an absolute basis, the drug-induced QT abbreviation and TDR reduction were similar in the 3 models. In the case of LQT1 and LQT2 but not LQT3, modest concentrations of nicorandil were often able to reduce TDR below the level necessary for the development of TdP (70 to 80 ms). Thus, the key to the effectiveness of nicorandil in LQT1 and LQT2 appears to be the ability of the drug to diminish the width of the vulnerable window created by the TDR. These findings suggest that K+ channel openers may be of therapeutic value in LQT1 and LQT2 but perhaps less so in LQT3.
The ionic basis for the differential effects of the K+ channel opener in the 3 forms of congenital LQTS may be due to differences in input resistance that result from loss versus gain of ion channel function. The loss of function in LQT1 and LQT2 (reduced IKs and IKr) results in an increase in membrane resistance, which makes it easier for additional current from any source to modulate membrane potential at the level of the plateau. The opposite is true in LQT3. A smaller membrane resistance is encountered in LQT3 because of a gain of function (augmented late INa). As a consequence, a further increase in net outward current, such as with IK-ATP activation, is expected to have a relatively small influence on the plateau to abbreviate APD. Conversely, because membrane resistance is increased in LQT1 and LQT2, an increase in IK-ATP is expected to produce greater modulation of the plateau, resulting in a greater abbreviation of APD.
The extent to which our pharmacological models mimic the 3 forms of congenital LQTS is difficult to quantify and is subject to modulation by a number of factors, including sympathetic activity. These models have been shown to mimic their clinical counterparts with respect to the ECG signature, rate dependence of QT interval, and response to a variety of drugs. Exceptions to these rules are encountered in the wedge model as they are in the clinic. It is important to keep in mind that individual mutations in KCNQ1, HERG, or SCN5A can cause quantitatively different changes in ion channel characteristics as well as differences in modulation by extrinsic forces. The various mutations responsible for the LQTS phenotype are similar only in their ability to qualitatively reduce or augment function. Thus, qualitatively, the pharmacological models represent reasonable surrogates for both congenital and acquired LQTS.
Effect of a K+ Channel Opener on TdP
TdP is an atypical polymorphic ventricular
arrhythmia most often associated with QT prolongation in both
congenital and acquired forms of LQTS. Recent in vivo studies from
El-Sherif et al16 and Vos and coworkers,17
perfused wedge studies from our group,7 simulation
studies,21 and clinical observations using monophasic
action potential recordings6 22 present
evidence in support of the hypothesis that an early afterdepolarization
(EAD)–induced triggered activity initiates TdP but that the
arrhythmia is maintained by a reentrant mechanism. Our previous
studies have demonstrated that sodium channel block with mexiletine
suppresses TdP by decreasing TDR in the LQT1, LQT2, and LQT3
syndromes.8 9 Similarly, in the present study,
nicorandil reduced the vulnerable period for induction of TdP by
reducing TDR. When TDR was not reduced below the lower limit of the
vulnerable window (TDR>70 to 80 ms), spontaneous and
stimulation-induced TdP was not suppressed, providing further support
for reentry as the basis for the maintenance of TdP.
Nicorandil as well as 2 other IK-ATP openers, pinacidil and cromakalim, are known to shorten APD and to suppress EADs induced by cesium chloride,23 24 25 clofilium,26 or Bay K 8644.27 Recent clinical studies that used monophasic action potential recordings have reported the effect of nicorandil to abolish EADs.6 28 Thus, IK-ATP openers may prevent spontaneous TdP by suppressing the EAD-induced triggered activity responsible for the initiating premature beat.
A problem with K+ channel openers is that they can cause a drop in blood pressure and elicit reflex sympathetic activity that may be arrhythmogenic in LQTS. Nicorandil is unique among K+ channel openers because it exerts less of a hypotensive effect than other K+ channel openers, including cromakalim and pinacidil.29 The present study examines the dose-dependent effects of nicorandil over a concentration range of 2 to 20 µmol/L. Oral dosing of nicorandil leads to blood levels in the range of 0.2 to 0.3 µmol/L, whereas intravenous injection can raise plasma levels to 4 µmol/L. Although we must exercise great caution in the interpretation of these findings, the data thus far available suggest that intravenous but not orally administered nicorandil may be of therapeutic value in suppressing repetitive episodes of TdP in patients with LQT1 and LQT2 syndromes but less so in those with LQT3.30
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by grant HL-47678 from the National Institutes of Health (Dr Antzelevitch) and grants from Medtronic Japan (Dr Shimizu), the American Heart Association (Dr Shimizu), and the Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Manhattan Masonic Districts and Masons of New York State and Florida. We gratefully acknowledge the expert technical assistance of Judy Hefferon and Di Hou. Nicorandil was generously donated by Chugai Pharmaceutical Co, Ltd, Tokyo, Japan.
Received December 15, 1999; revision received March 2, 2000; accepted March 16, 2000.
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G. Thomas, I. S. Gurung, M. J. Killeen, P. Hakim, C. A. Goddard, M. P. Mahaut-Smith, W. H. Colledge, A. A. Grace, and C. L.-H. Huang Effects of L-type Ca2+ channel antagonism on ventricular arrhythmogenesis in murine hearts containing a modification in the Scn5a gene modelling human long QT syndrome 3 J. Physiol., January 1, 2007; 578(1): 85 - 97. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Ueda, D. P. Zipes, and J. Wu Coronary occlusion and reperfusion promote early afterdepolarizations and ventricular tachycardia in a canine tissue model of type 3 long QT syndrome Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, February 1, 2006; 290(2): H607 - H612. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Milberg, N. Reinsch, K. Wasmer, G. Monnig, J. Stypmann, N. Osada, G. Breithardt, W. Haverkamp, and L. Eckardt Transmural dispersion of repolarization as a key factor of arrhythmogenicity in a novel intact heart model of LQT3 Cardiovasc Res, February 1, 2005; 65(2): 397 - 404. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Antzelevitch Cardiac repolarization. The long and short of it Europace, January 1, 2005; 7(s2): S3 - S9. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Ueda, D. P. Zipes, and J. Wu Functional and transmural modulation of M cell behavior in canine ventricular wall Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, December 1, 2004; 287(6): H2569 - H2575. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C.-C. Chang, S. Acharfi, M.-H. Wu, F.-T. Chiang, J.-K. Wang, T.-C. Sung, and M. Chahine A novel SCN5A mutation manifests as a malignant form of long QT syndrome with perinatal onset of tachycardia/bradycardia Cardiovasc Res, November 1, 2004; 64(2): 268 - 278. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Ueda, D. P Zipes, and J. Wu Prior ischemia enhances arrhythmogenicity in isolated canine ventricular wedge model of long QT 3 Cardiovasc Res, July 1, 2004; 63(1): 69 - 76. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Balasubramaniam, A. A Grace, R. C Saumarez, J. I Vandenberg, and C. L-H Huang Electrogram prolongation and nifedipine-suppressible ventricular arrhythmias in mice following targeted disruption of KCNE1 J. Physiol., October 15, 2003; 552(2): 535 - 546. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Makita, M. Horie, T. Nakamura, T. Ai, K. Sasaki, H. Yokoi, M. Sakurai, I. Sakuma, H. Otani, H. Sawa, et al. Drug-Induced Long-QT Syndrome Associated With a Subclinical SCN5A Mutation Circulation, September 3, 2002; 106(10): 1269 - 1274. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Chinushi, H. Kasai, M. Tagawa, T. Washizuka, Y. Hosaka, Y. Chinushi, and Y. Aizawa Triggers of ventricular tachyarrhythmias and therapeutic effects of nicorandil in canine models of LQT2 and LQT3 syndromes J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., August 7, 2002; 40(3): 555 - 562. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. A Karle, E. Zitron, W. Zhang, S. Kathofer, W. Schoels, and J. Kiehn Rapid component IKr of the guinea-pig cardiac delayed rectifier K+ current is inhibited by {beta}1-adrenoreceptor activation, via cAMP/protein kinase A-dependent pathways Cardiovasc Res, February 1, 2002; 53(2): 355 - 362. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G.-X. Yan, S. J. Rials, Y. Wu, T. Liu, X. Xu, R. A. Marinchak, and P. R. Kowey Ventricular hypertrophy amplifies transmural repolarization dispersion and induces early afterdepolarization Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, November 1, 2001; 281(5): H1968 - H1975. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G.-X. Yan, Y. Wu, T. Liu, J. Wang, R. A. Marinchak, and P. R. Kowey Phase 2 Early Afterdepolarization as a Trigger of Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia in Acquired Long-QT Syndrome : Direct Evidence From Intracellular Recordings in the Intact Left Ventricular Wall Circulation, June 12, 2001; 103(23): 2851 - 2856. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. M. Roden Pharmacogenetics and drug-induced arrhythmias Cardiovasc Res, May 1, 2001; 50(2): 224 - 231. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Kohl, A. D. Nesbitt, P. J. Cooper, and M. Lei Sudden cardiac death by Commotio cordis: role of mechano--electric feedback Cardiovasc Res, May 1, 2001; 50(2): 280 - 289. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. E. Puddu, A. Criniti, and F Monti Screening for drug-induced (acquired) long QT syndrome: is it time to apply new methods? Eur. Heart J., March 1, 2001; 22(5): 363 - 369. [PDF]
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Y. Tanabe, M. Inagaki, T. Kurita, N. Nagaya, A. Taguchi, K. Suyama, N. Aihara, S. Kamakura, K. Sunagawa, K. Nakamura, et al. Sympathetic stimulation produces a greater increase in both transmural and spatial dispersion of repolarization in LQT1 than LQT2 forms of congenital long QT syndrome J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., March 1, 2001; 37(3): 911 - 919. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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