(Circulation. 2001;103:133.)
© 2001 American Heart Association, Inc.
Basic Science Reports |
Diet-Induced Hyperhomocysteinemia Exacerbates Neointima Formation in Rat Carotid Arteries After Balloon Injury
From the Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo (H.M., H.K., S.Y., T.S., Y.O., Y.K., R.N.) and the Hospital International Medical Center of Japan (Y.Y.), Tokyo, and the Second Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Gumma University, Gumma (Y.S.), Japan. Dr H. Kurihara is now at the Division of Integrative Cell Biology, Department of Embryogenesis, Institute of Molecular Embryolosy and Genetics, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan.
Correspondence to Hiroki Kurihara, MD, Division of Integrative Cell Biology, Department of Embryogenesis, Institute of Molecular Embryology and Genetics, Kumamoto University, 2-2-1 Honjo, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan. E-mail kurihara{at}kaiju.medic.kumamoto-u.ac.jp
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Abstract |
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Background—Increasing evidence indicates that elevated plasma homocysteine levels are associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis and endothelial dysfunction, although little specific information on the mechanisms responsible for the atherogenic effects of homocysteine or on the in vivo contribution made by hyperhomocysteinemia to atherosclerosis is currently available. Because homocysteine is known to exert a direct inhibitory effect on endothelial cell growth in vitro, we hypothesized that this effect contributes to the progression of atherosclerotic lesions initiated by endothelial damage caused by mechanical injury.
Methods and Results—We prepared diet-induced hyperhomocysteinemic rats in which neointima formation after balloon injury to the common carotid artery was assessed. Moderate hyperhomocysteinemia (plasma homocysteine levels 3- to 4-fold higher than control) significantly exacerbated neointima formation. Oral administration of folate, which had a homocysteine-lowering effect, diminished neointima formation induced by moderate hyperhomocysteinemia. Furthermore, the attenuation of reendothelialization was shown in diet-induced hyperhomocysteinemic rats with Evans blue staining.
Conclusions—Diet-induced hyperhomocysteinemia, even mild to moderate, exacerbates neointima formation after denuding injury, making hyperhomocysteinemia a likely risk factor for postangioplasty restenosis. It may be mediated through an inhibitory effect of homocysteine on reendothelialization. Homocysteine lowering with folate supplementation can effectively ameliorate the detrimental effects of moderate hyperhomocysteinemia. Clinical trials would seem to be warranted.
Key Words: homocysteine • balloon injury • endothelium • folate
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Introduction |
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Homocysteine is a sulfur-containing amino acid whose concentrations are regulated by nutritional factors, mainly methionine and vitamin cofactors such as folate and vitamins B6 and B12.1 The prevalence of mild-to-moderate hyperhomocysteinemia in the general population is well known, and an increasing number of clinical studies have shown that elevated plasma homocysteine levels are associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis, independent of other known risk factors.2 In addition, recent progress in human genetics has revealed that
1 polymorphisms among
the enzymes involved in metabolizing homocysteine may be responsible
for the elevated plasma homocysteine levels and may thus constitute a
genetic risk factor for atherothrombotic disease. For example, we and
others have found an association between atherosclerotic disease and a
common, functionally important mutation (C677T) of the key metabolic
enzyme, 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), particularly
when folate levels are
low.3 4 5 6 7
The genetic polymorphism of MTHFR is a genetic marker for
atherosclerotic diseases as well as a determinant of susceptibility to
folate insufficiency. Given the potential clinical significance of
homocysteinemia, this means that folate supplementation may serve as an
effective antiatherosclerotic therapy. Homocysteine induces both atherogenic and thrombogenic mediators in cultured vascular cells8 9 10 and causes endothelial dysfunction in humans and monkeys.11 12 However, little is known about the mechanisms underlying the atherogenic effects of homocysteine or about the in vivo contribution made by mild-to-moderate hyperhomocysteinemia to atherosclerosis. The latter is important in clinical terms, because even though mild-to-moderate hyperhomocysteinemia itself may not be atherogenic, it may lead to progression of atherosclerosis in concert with other stimuli such as mechanical injury.
The aim of the present study was to test this hypothesis using the rat balloon injury model, which is the most extensively studied model of the neointima formation typically encountered in human atherosclerotic coronary arteries after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty.13 14
Hyperhomocysteinemia was induced by dietary modification, and the extent of neointima formation and reendothelialization after balloon injury was estimated. In addition, the therapeutic effect of oral folate administration was tested and the clinical merit of folate supplementation was discussed.
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Methods |
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Dietary Model
The experimental protocol used in this study was designed in accordance with the Guide for Animal Experimentation, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tokyo.
Eight-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into subgroups and maintained for 4 weeks before experimentation either on control chow containing 0.36% methionine, 0.00019% folate, 0.0% homocysteine, and 0.27% cysteine or on 1 of the following modified diets containing either 1.2% methionine, 2.0% methionine, 1.2% methionine+0.0019% folate, 2.0% methionine+0.0019% folate, 1.0% homocysteine, or 1.0% cysteine. Food and water were provided ad libitum.
Measurement of Homocysteine and Folate
Blood samples were drawn from the tail vein, promptly
centrifuged, and stored at -20°C. Plasma homocysteine was
measured as the total homocysteine by high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection, as previously
described.15 Plasma
concentrations of methionine and cystine were measured by HPLC using
ninhydrin. Serum folate was measured with a commercially available
radioimmunoassay kit.
Rat Arterial Injury Model
After 4 weeks on their respective diets, rats
(weighing 400 to 450 g) were anesthetized with chloral hydrate
(370 mg/kg IP). Balloon denudation of the left common carotid artery
was performed as previously
described.13 Mortality
attributable to anesthesia or postsurgical complications was <10%.
The right common carotid artery served as a
control.
Evaluation of Neointimal Hyperplasia
Rats were euthanized with a lethal dose of anesthetic
14 days after balloon injury, after which the carotid arteries were
perfused with 4% paraformaldehyde and PBS. Each injured left carotid
artery was excised from the proximal edge of the omohyoid muscle to the
carotid bifurcation. The middle third of the segment was then fixed in
4% paraformaldehyde for 12 hours and embedded in paraffin. Cross
sections (6 µm) cut from each sample at intervals of 500 µm
were stained with hematoxylin/eosin and photographed. The
photomicrographs were then scanned and analyzed with NIH Image 1.58
Software (National Institutes of Health). The sections with the largest
neointima/media ratios were subjected to statistical analysis. An
average for each parameter was calculated on the basis of the animals
in the respective group.
Analysis of Reendothelialization of
Arterial Segments
Reendothelialization was assessed in rats maintained
on control chow, the 2.0% methionine diet, the 1.2% methionine diet,
or the 1.2% methionine+0.0019% folate diet with Evans blue dye, which
stains areas of nonendothelialized artery
blue.16 17 18
Thirty minutes before euthanasia, rats received an intravenous
injection via the tail vein of 0.5 mL 0.5% Evans blue. After fixation
in situ in 100% methanol, the initially endothelium-denuded segment of
left common carotid artery (defined as the total surface area of the
harvested arterial segment, from just under the proximal edge of the
omohyoid muscle to the carotid bifurcation) was dissected free, incised
longitudinally, and photographed under a dissecting microscope. A
single observer blinded to the experimental regimen carried out the
planimetric analysis of the photographs using a computerized sketching
program on a digitizing board (NIH Image 1.58 Software).
Reendothelialized areas were defined macroscopically as those areas not
stained by the Evans blue dye.
Functional Study of Carotid Rings
To test whether endothelial function is impaired in
diet-induced hyperhomocysteinemic rats, we examined
endothelium-dependent vasodilator, acetylcholine-induced relaxation of
arterial rings isolated from rats fed control chow (n=10) and 2.0%
methionine (n=7). The right (uninjured) and left (injured) common
carotid arteries were carefully removed to avoid damaging endothelium
14 days after balloon injury. After blood and connective tissue had
been removed, the common carotid artery was divided into 3 cylindrical
segments (proximal, middle, and distal portions). Each ring segment (2
mm long) was mounted between 2 stainless steel wires in 10 mL of organ
bath containing Krebs bicarbonate solution bubbled with a mixture of
95% O2 and 5% CO2 to
obtain rapid mixing of drugs. One wire was attached to a fixed support,
and the other was connected to a force-displacement transducer. The
rings were suspended under 1.0 g of tension. The preparation was
allowed to equilibrate for 90 minutes and preconstricted by
phenylephrine (10-9 mol/L). To obtain a
dose-response curve for acetylcholine
(10-8 to 10-5
mol/L) and sodium nitroprusside (10-8 to
10-5 mol/L), a stock solution of drugs was
added cumulatively to the organ bath. To evaluate the endogenous NO
production, we further analyzed acetylcholine-induced vasodilatation
after blockade of NO production with
N-nitro-l-arginine
methyl ester (L-NAME; 10-5 mol/L). Data
were expressed as percentage relaxation of phenylephrine-induced
preconstriction.
Statistical Analysis
All data are presented as mean±SEM. Differences
between groups were evaluated by ANOVA and Scheffé’s F test. Values
of P<0.05 were considered
significant.
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Results |
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Effect of Diet on Plasma Homocysteine, Methionine, Cystine, and Serum Folate Levels
Plasma homocysteine concentrations in rats fed 1.2% methionine were significantly higher than in rats fed control chow (27.2±5.0 versus 7.6±0.5 µmol/L) (Figure 1A
). Still higher plasma homocysteine levels were
observed in rats fed diets containing either 2.0% methionine or 1.0%
homocysteine (83.9±21.7 and 86.2±11.6 µmol/L, respectively).
Below-control homocysteine levels were observed in rats fed 1.0%
cysteine (5.4±0.3 µmol/L). In addition, we observed a significant
homocysteine-lowering effect of folate in rats fed 1.2%
methionine+0.0019% folate compared with 1.2% methionine alone
(10.1±1.6 versus 27.2±5.0 µmol/L). However, folate had no apparent
effect on plasma homocysteine in rats fed 2.0% methionine (83.9±21.7
versus 88.7±15.2 µmol/L).
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P<0.01 vs 1.2% methionine diet, ||not significant vs 2.0% methionine diet. B, Serum folate concentrations; ¶P<0.01 vs normal diet, P<0.001 vs normal diet. C, Plasma methionine levels; P<0.001 vs normal diet, #P<0.05 vs normal diet. Data are mean±SEM.
Mildly elevated serum folate was seen in rats
maintained on 1.2% or 2.0% methionine, on 1.0% homocysteine, or on
1.0% cysteine, although there were no significant differences among
the 4 groups
(Figure 1B
). As expected, folate levels were significantly
elevated in rats receiving the high-folate diet. Also as expected,
plasma methionine was significantly higher in the high-methionine
groups; however, methionine levels were not elevated in the 1.0%
homocysteine group, and there was a significant decrease in the 1.0%
cysteine group
(Figure 1C). High dietary folate did not affect plasma
methionine concentrations in our study. Furthermore, there were no
significant differences in plasma cystine levels among rats fed 2.0%
methionine (28.0±4.1), 1.0% homocysteine (23.5±3.8), or 1.0%
cysteine (27.0±3.6), all of which were significantly higher than
control (3.5±0.4 µmol/L). Cystine concentrations were also
unaffected by dietary folate (1.2% methionine, 18.8±3.9 versus 1.2%
methionine+0.0019% folate, 20.9±3.0 µmol/L).
Analysis of Neointima Formation
Neointimal thickening was significantly greater in rats
fed diets containing 1.2% or 2.0% methionine or 1.0% homocysteine
than in the controls
(Figure 2).
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Rats fed control chow had an average neointimal area of
0.21±0.01 mm2, compared with 0.34±0.02
mm2 in the 1.2% methionine group,
0.35±0.02 mm2 in the 2.0% methionine
group, and 0.35±0.03 mm2 in the 1.0%
homocysteine group
(Figure 2B). In contrast, no significant changes in medial
area were observed
(Figure 2A).
Calculation of neointima/media ratios yielded analogous
results
(Figure 2C). The average neointima/media ratio in rats
maintained on control chow was 1.41±0.10, compared with 2.15±0.13 in
the 1.2% methionine group, 2.21±0.09 in the 2.0% methionine group,
and 2.03±0.12 in the 1.0% homocysteine group. Luminal areas were
significantly smaller in rats fed 1.2% methionine (0.11±0.02
mm2), 2.0% methionine (0.09±0.01
mm2), or 1.0% homocysteine (0.09±0.01
mm2) than in rats fed control diet
(0.19±0.02 mm2)
(Figure 2D). Rats fed a diet containing 1.0% cysteine
exhibited an average neointimal area of 0.21±0.01
mm2, a neointima/media ratio of 1.34±0.07,
and a luminal area of 0.21±0.02 mm2, values
similar to those seen in rats maintained on control chow.
Homocysteine lowering with high dietary folate diminished neointima formation such that both neointimal area and neointima/media ratios were significantly lower in rats fed 1.2% methionine+0.0019% folate than in rats fed 1.2% methionine alone (neointimal area, 0.24±0.02 versus 0.34±0.02 mm2; neointima/media ratio, 1.56±0.11 versus 2.15±0.13). In addition, rats on the high-folate diet exhibited a concomitant increase in luminal area (0.17±0.03 versus 0.11±0.02 mm2).
Conversely, rats fed 2.0% methionine+0.0019% folate (n=8) exhibited an average neointimal area of 0.33±0.03 mm2, a neointima/media ratio of 2.24±0.11, and a luminal area of 0.10±0.01 mm2, values similar to those seen in rats maintained on a 2.0% methionine diet.
No structural or histological differences were seen in the uninjured right common carotid arteries of any group (data not shown).
We summarized the changes of plasma amino acids and
neointima/media ratio after balloon injury in a demonstrative chart
(Table).
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Analysis of Reendothelialization
To estimate the extent of areas that remained to be
deendothelialized at 14 days after balloon injury, we used Evans blue
dye. Reendothelialization was observed to spread from the marginal
portion of the initially deendothelialized area to the central portion.
The attenuation of reendothelialization was observed in the 1.2%
high-methionine-diet (n=11) and 2.0% high-methionine-diet groups
(n=13) versus the normal-diet group (n=13). Although there was no
difference in sizes of the initially deendothelialized areas in the 3
groups, rats receiving a normal diet had a reendothelialized area of
5.9±0.6 versus 3.0±0.5 mm2 in the 1.2%
high-methionine-diet group
(P=0.0021 versus normal-diet
group) and 2.2±0.4 mm2 in the 2.0%
high-methionine-diet group
(P<0.0001 versus normal-diet
group)
(Figure 3A). Expressed as a percentage of the total area that
was initially deendothelialized, the reendothelialized area was
37.4±2.9% in the normal-diet group, compared with 18.8±2.5% in the
1.2% high-methionine-diet group
(P<0.0001 versus normal-diet
group) and 13.7±2.4% in the 2.0% high-methionine-diet group
(P<0.0001 versus normal-diet
group) (Figure 3B).
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As shown in Figure 3, the attenuation of reendothelialization was
ameliorated in the 1.2% methionine+0.0019% folate–diet group (n=9)
compared with the 1.2% high-methionine-diet group (reendothelialized
area, 5.4±0.4 versus 3.0±0.5 mm2
[P=0.0030]; percent
reendothelialization, 33.9±2.5% versus 18.8±2.5%
[P=0.0061]).
Functional Study of Carotid Rings
In a dose-dependent manner, acetylcholine
(10-8 to 10-5
mol/L) elicited significantly greater peak dilatations of uninjured
common carotid arteries from rats fed control chow than those fed 2.0%
high-methionine diet with Rmax (maximal
response) of 98.4±1.0% and 66.2±9.4%, respectively
(P=0.0005) (Figure 4A).
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As shown in Figure 4B through 4D, there was a significant difference in
acetylcholine-induced relaxation of proximal and distal portions of
injured common carotid arteries between the normal-diet group and the
2.0% high-methionine-diet group (proximal portion:
Rmax 34.9±8.2% versus 10.1±4.2%
[P=0.025]; distal portion:
R(10-6 mol/L Ach)
32.6±7.0% versus 12.3±5.3%
[P=0.039];
Rmax 37.0±8.1% versus 17.2±6.8%
[P=0.081]), whereas no
difference in the relaxation responses to acetylcholine was shown in
the middle portion (Rmax 15.8±4.9% versus
13.5±8.2%).
Moreover, we compared the endothelial function according to
the portion of injured common carotid arteries in each diet group. In
the normal-diet group, the middle portion elicited a weaker relaxation
response to acetylcholine than the proximal and distal portions
(Rmax 34.9±8.2% [proximal] versus
15.8±4.9% [middle]
[P=0.046]; 37.0±8.1%
[distal] versus 15.8±4.9% [middle]
[P=0.030]). In the 2.0%
high-methionine-diet group, any portion had poor endothelial function,
and there was no difference according to the portion
(Figure 5).
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Relaxation to acetylcholine was abolished in all vessels after pretreatment with the NO synthesis inhibitor L-NAME 10-5 mol/L. There was no significant difference in relaxation responses to sodium nitroprusside (10-8 to 10-5 mol/L) among the carotid ring segments described above (data not shown).
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Discussion |
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The present analysis yielded 3 major findings: first, diet-induced hyperhomocysteinemia, even mild to moderate, exacerbated neointima formation in the rat balloon injury model; second, hyperhomocysteinemia attenuated reendothelialization of balloon-injured arteries; and third, folate supplementation, which had a homocysteine-lowering effect, attenuated the hyperhomocysteinemia-induced exacerbation of neointima formation.
Numerous clinical studies have shown that hyperhomocysteinemia is a major independent risk factor for vascular diseases.2 Through genetic analysis of the enzymes mediating homocysteine metabolism, we and others have shown that prevalent mild-to-moderate hyperhomocysteinemia contributes to the onset of atherosclerotic disease and that folate administration may be an effective antiatherosclerotic strategy.3 4 5 6 7
In addition, a variety of in vitro studies have shown that homocysteine may contribute to the atherosclerotic and thrombotic processes by modulating vascular cell proliferation and by promoting prothrombotic activities.8 9 10
The in vivo contribution of hyperhomocysteinemia to atherosclerosis has been less extensively investigated, however. Harker et al19 20 showed that infusion of homocystine into baboons elicited patchy desquamation of vascular endothelium in the short term and led to formation of a neointima composed of proliferating smooth muscle cells in the long term. Because homocysteine concentrations are regulated by dietary intake of mainly methionine and vitamin cofactors, analysis of diet-induced hyperhomocysteinemia in animals should provide useful information on the in vivo effect of homocysteine and on potential therapeutic strategies. In the present study, therefore, we used a dietary model of hyperhomocysteinemia to examine the effect of homocysteine on reendothelialization and neointima formation after balloon injury as well as the therapeutic effect of oral folate supplementation.
Neointima Formation and
Reendothelialization
Balloon catheter injury to the rat carotid artery
triggers a sequence of events leading to formation of a thickened
neointima, and many mediators and compounds have been
discussed16 17 18 21 ;
in particular, the endothelium plays an essential role in neointima
formation after balloon injury. Asahara et
al16 showed that application
of vascular endothelial growth factor, which promotes
reendothelialization, attenuates neointimal formation. Similarly,
Krasinski et al17 showed
that increased endothelial recovery is correlated with diminished
neointimal hyperplasia in a dose-response manner. Because homocysteine
is known to exert a direct inhibitory effect on endothelial growth,
hyperhomocysteinemia would be expected to attenuate
reendothelialization and exacerbate neointima formation after balloon
injury.
The present findings show that augmented neointimal
formation occurred at plasma homocysteine concentrations 
3- to
4-fold higher than control, which are similar to the concentrations
associated with increased risk of vascular disease in humans. Comparing
neointima formation in the high-methionine group, exhibiting
hypermethioninemia, and the homocysteine group, exhibiting the same
plasma methionine levels as the control group, we concluded that it was
highly unlikely that neointima formation observed in the groups on
high-methionine diets was due to a direct effect of methionine, because
the same degree of neointima formation was observed in the
homocysteine-diet group with normomethioninemia.
To distinguish whether this effect is due to increased plasma levels of cystine, we examined the neointima formation in rats fed a high-cysteine diet. The high-cysteine diet had no effect on neointima formation, which is in agreement with an earlier report that homocysteine, but not cysteine, inhibits DNA synthesis in vascular endothelial cells via reduction of p21ras methylation.10
Furthermore, reendothelialization was significantly attenuated in diet-induced hyperhomocysteinemic rats, suggesting that the augmented neointima formation might be secondary to impaired reendothelialization. However, the precise mechanism by which homocysteine attenuates reendothelialization remains to be investigated, and the other mechanisms—for example, in vivo effects of homocysteine on proliferating vascular smooth muscle cells—might be related to a predisposition to neointima formation in this model.
Ross22 suggested that factors including oxidized LDL, mechanical injury, and homocysteine act in concert to cause endothelial injury that predisposes arteries to progression of neointimal thickening. Consistent with this theory, we observed that in the presence of a balloon injury, elevated plasma homocysteine exacerbated the progression of neointimal thickening, even when homocysteine levels remaining within the expected physiological range, making hyperhomocysteinemia a likely risk factor for postangioplasty restenosis.
Therapeutic Application of Folate
The beneficial effects of vitamins on plasma
homocysteine levels and on the progression of atherosclerosis have yet
to be verified. Nonetheless, we observed that oral folate
administration ameliorated moderate hyperhomocysteinemia and diminished
neointima formation, possibly mediated through the increased
reendothelialization, whereas in severe hyperhomocysteinemia (2.0%
high-methionine-diet group), the plasma homocysteine concentrations and
the neointima formation after balloon injury could not be improved by
additional high-folate diet. This is a useful control group to separate
the independent influence of folate from its homocysteine-lowering
effect.
It is suggested that control of hyperhomocysteinemia by dietary modification or folate supplementation, if not severe, could decrease the consequent vascular events caused by hyperhomocysteinemia.
Consequently, additional studies and/or clinical trials aimed at determining whether homocysteine-lowering regimens might effectively prevent postangioplasty restenosis in humans would seem to be warranted.
Analysis of Endothelial Function in This
Model
The functional analysis of endothelium in
homocysteinemia could give us a great deal of information on the
atherogenic effect of homocysteinemia. We examined the endothelial
function in both the injured and the noninjured arteries using ex vivo
models of carotid rings. In the analysis of uninjured common carotid
arteries, we confirmed the endothelial dysfunction in
hyperhomocysteinemia, which is consistent with other recent
reports.23 24 And
through the functional analysis of injured arteries, we demonstrated 2
findings: (1) reendothelialization initiated in the marginal part of
the deendothelialized area spreads to the center part, and (2)
reendothelialization is impaired in hyperhomocysteinemia, which is in
concordance with the analysis using Evans blue dye. This is the first
report on the functional analysis of injured endothelium under
hyperhomocysteinemia.
In summary, diet-induced mild-to-moderate hyperhomocysteinemia, the extent of which is comparable to the levels that are associated with a predisposition to common atherosclerotic diseases in humans, is shown to promote neointima formation in a rat balloon injury model. It may be mediated through an inhibitory effect of homocysteine on reendothelialization. Moreover, folate administration might be a promising therapy for vascular events caused by hyperhomocysteinemia.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, Japan; the Japan Cardiovascular Research Foundation; TMFC; and the Ryoichi Naito Foundation for Medical Research (to Dr H. Kurihara); and by the Japan Heart Foundation; a Pfizer Pharmaceuticals Grant for Research on Coronary Artery Disease; a Research Grant of the Tokyo Hypertension Conference; the Research Foundation for Community Medicine Research Meeting on Hypertension and Arteriosclerosis; and a Research Grant from the Sankyo Foundation of Life Science (to Dr Morita).
Received May 5, 2000; revision received July 18, 2000; accepted July 20, 2000.
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