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Circulation. 1995;92:935-943

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(Circulation. 1995;92:935-943.)
© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.

Articles

Infarct Salvage With Liposomal Prostaglandin E1 Administered by Intravenous Bolus Immediately Before Reperfusion in a Canine Infarction-Reperfusion Model

Richard W. Smalling, MD, PhD; Steven Feld, MD; Nagendra Ramanna, MD; James Amirian, BS; Patty Felli, BS; William K. Vaughn, PhD; Christine Swenson, PhD; Andrew Janoff, PhD

From the Division of Cardiology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston; the Texas Heart Institute, Houston (W.K.V.); and the Liposome Co, Inc, Princeton, NJ (C.S., A.J.).

Correspondence to Richard W. Smalling, MD, PhD, Professor of Medicine, University of Texas Medical School, MSB 1.246, 6431 Fannin, Houston, TX 77030.


*    Abstract
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 *Abstract
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down arrowResults
down arrowDiscussion
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Background Prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) inhibits leukocyte and platelet function and reduces infarct size during left atrial infusion. Intravenous liposomal PGE1 (TLC C-53) accelerates thrombolysis and prevents reocclusion in canine coronary thrombosis. We tested the hypothesis that intravenous TLC C-53 would attenuate reperfusion injury in a canine infarction-reperfusion model.

Methods and Results Twenty-one open-chest dogs were randomized to receive a 10-minute intravenous infusion of either liposome diluent (placebo), free PGE1 (2 µg/kg), or TLC C-53 (2 µg/kg PGE1) after 2 hours of left anterior descending (LAD) occlusion just before reperfusion. Hemodynamic assessment, regional myocardial blood flow determination with radioactive microspheres, myocardial leukocyte infiltration by myeloperoxidase assay, and estimation of infarct size using triphenyl tetrazolium chloride staining were performed. Regional fractional shortening was measured with sonomicrometer crystals implanted in the midmyocardium. Infarct size as a percentage of the risk region was significantly reduced (P<.05) with TLC C-53 (37.9±17.4%) compared with PGE1 (56.7±13.9%) or placebo (58.0±9.9%) infusion. Infarct salvage with TLC C-53 was independent of collateral blood flow by ANCOVA. There was a dramatic reduction in myeloperoxidase activity in the infarct, risk, and border regions of dogs treated with TLC C-53 compared with placebo. Enzyme activity was also significantly reduced (P<.05) in the infarct zone with TLC C-53 (0.11±0.1 U/100 mg) treatment compared with PGE1 (0.38±0.3 U/100 mg). No significant differences in regional myocardial blood flow or myocardial function among treatment groups were identified, although there was a trend toward improved function in the TLC C-53 dogs.

Conclusions Bolus intravenous administration of TLC C-53 immediately before reperfusion results in reduced leukocyte infiltration and substantial infarct salvage. TLC C-53 may be useful in limiting reperfusion injury during treatment of acute myocardial infarction.


Key Words: liposomes • prostaglandins • reperfusion


*    Introduction
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 up arrowAbstract
 *Introduction
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down arrowDiscussion
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Clinical trials have documented enhanced survival with successful reperfusion in the setting of acute myocardial infarction, but improvement in left ventricular function (and implied functional infarct salvage) is less common.1 2 Recently, the MITI investigators3 found that very early administration of a thrombolytic agent resulted in marked improvement in both mortality and left ventricular function. To achieve this result, the lytic agent had to be administered within the first 70 minutes of chest pain, which would correspond to reperfusion within the first 2 hours of ischemia. Progressively less survival benefit is derived as the time from chest pain to initiation of thrombolytic therapy increases.4 5 6 Furthermore, results from a collaborative review of seven large randomized thrombolytic trials clearly demonstrate that administration of thrombolytic agents may be associated with an increased risk of mortality within the first 24 hours of hospital admission.7 This phenomenon has been called "early hazard" and probably represents an adverse outcome with reperfusion in patients presenting more than 2 hours after onset of symptoms.8 Moreover, the risk of early hazard increases with progressive delays from symptom onset to the administration of thrombolytic agents, limiting net mortality benefit.7 Although the mechanism of early hazard is unknown, reperfusion injury may play a role in its pathogenesis.9 In experimental animals, after 90 minutes of ischemic injury, reperfusion at the tissue level has been associated with extensive capillary damage and myocardial cell swelling.10 11 Despite restoration of epicardial coronary blood flow, microvascular blood flow was impaired, potentially further impairing infarct salvage. Thrombolytic agents such as tissue-type plasminogen activator are partially effective in restoring the blood flow in the epicardial vessels but do not appear to affect the "no-reflow" phenomenon.12 It is possible that reperfusion injury is more common in patients presenting >2 hours after onset of pain and limits the benefit of delayed reperfusion. A reduction in reperfusion injury could potentially improve the outcome of patients treated >=3 to >=6 hours after onset of pain.

Prostaglandins E1 and I2 have shown promise in reducing infarct size in experimental animal models. Their infusion directly into the left atrium during continued ischemia results in infarct salvage in the absence of reperfusion.13 Prostaglandins E1 and I2 reduce free radical production in stimulated human neutrophils and may attenuate reperfusion injury.14 They also inhibit platelets15 and are vasodilators. Liposomal delivery of prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) may effectively target the PGE1 to white blood cells, platelets, and endothelial cells16 and possibly limit the hemodynamic impact of PGE1 until the liposomal preparation interacts with the target cellular elements.16 We have previously shown that repetitive administration of bolus doses of liposomal PGE1 reduces white blood cell activation and accumulation in ischemic tissue as well as infarct size in a 2-hour canine occlusion-reperfusion model. These effects were not associated with significant adverse hemodynamic effects, in contrast to continuous infusion of PGE1.17 In a more clinically relevant canine model with coil-induced coronary artery thrombi, we observed that liposomal PGE1 (TLC C-53), given intravenously 1 hour after clot maturation and just before intravenous streptokinase and heparin, accelerated thrombolysis, prevented reocclusion, and led to a significant reduction in infarct size.18 Furthermore, a dose of 2 µg/kg PGE1 of the TLC C-53 preparation administered as a bolus infusion did not result in significant differences in hemodynamic parameters compared with placebo.18

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that intravenous bolus administration of liposomal PGE1 (TLC C-53) immediately before reperfusion would attenuate reperfusion injury, promote infarct salvage, and preserve regional myocardial function in a 2-hour canine infarction-reperfusion model. TLC C-53 containing 2 µg/kg PGE1 was compared with free PGE1 at a similar dose and with placebo.


*    Methods
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 *Methods
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This study was reviewed and approved by the Animal Welfare Committee of the University of Texas Medical School at Houston. Thirty conditioned mongrel dogs weighing 25 to 35 kg were anesthetized with intravenous pentobarbital (30 mg/kg) and maintained on a volume ventilator with supplemental intramuscular and intravenous doses of pentobarbital administered for maintenance anesthesia. Before the procedure was begun, the dogs were randomized to receive an intravenous bolus over 10 minutes of TLC C-53, PGE1, or placebo at the time of reperfusion. A left lateral thoracotomy was performed using aseptic technique, and the heart was suspended in a pericardial cradle. Catheters were placed in the left atrium, ascending aorta, and left ventricle. The left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) was gently dissected free of surrounding tissue just distal to the first diagonal branch, and a Doppler flow probe and coronary snare were placed around the exposed arterial segment. Sonomicrometer crystals were inserted at midwall in the circumferential plane in the ischemic region (supplied by the LAD) and a control region (supplied by the left circumflex artery). Visible epicardial collateral vessels from the distal circumflex artery were tied off outside the anticipated ischemic region. Baseline hemodynamic measurements, including aortic, left atrial, and left ventricular pressures and heart rate, were recorded. Radioactive microspheres 15 µm in diameter (New England Nuclear) were injected into the left atrium (3x106 to 5x106 microspheres per injection), and aortic blood was sampled continuously for 2 minutes to determine regional myocardial blood flow.19 After baseline measurements were obtained, the LAD was occluded with the snare, and flow cessation was documented by Doppler signal. After 10 minutes of LAD occlusion, hemodynamic and microsphere blood flow measurements were repeated. Hemodynamic measurements were also obtained 1 hour and 1 hour and 40 minutes after coronary occlusion. One hour and forty-five minutes after occlusion, either TLC C-53 (2 µg/kg PGE1), free PGE1 (2 µg/kg), or placebo diluent (0.01 mol/L buffered acetate solution) was administered over 10 minutes by continuous infusion. The PGE1 preparation used was Prostin VR Pediatric brand of alprostadil sterile solution (the Upjohn Co). TLC C-53 was supplied by the Liposome Co, Inc and consisted of 10 µg/mL prostaglandin E1 and 4 mg/mL egg phosphatidylcholine in 0.01 mol/L acetate buffer. When reconstituted, the liposomes have a mean particle size of approximately 150 nm (range, 50 to 500 nm) and possess a PGE1-to-lipid ratio of 1:400 by weight. Thus, for a 25-kg dog, a 5-mL solution containing 50 µg PGE1 and 20 mg egg phosphatidylcholine in buffered acetate would be administered. A dose-ranging study was performed with bolus infusions of TLC C-53. Doses of TLC C-53 containing 0.5 to 2.0 µg/kg PGE1 induced acceptable levels of tachycardia and reduction of mean arterial pressure and resulted in infarct salvage in previous studies.17 18

At the completion of infusion (just before reperfusion), hemodynamic measurements were repeated. Precisely 2 hours after coronary occlusion, the LAD snare was released, and reflow was established and documented by Doppler. Hemodynamics were assessed 10 and 30 minutes after reperfusion. Microsphere blood flow measurements were obtained 30 minutes after reperfusion. One hour after reperfusion, hemodynamics were repeated, and at 2 hours after reperfusion, hemodynamic and microsphere blood flow measurements were obtained again. The protocol is outlined in Fig 1Down.



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  		Figure 1. Experimental protocol and time line. LAD indicates left anterior descending coronary artery; PGE1, prostaglandin E1; and TLC C-53, liposomal PGE1.

After the 2-hour reperfusion measurements were completed, additional intravenous sedation with sodium pentobarbital was administered, and the dog was killed by intra-atrial injection of supersaturated potassium chloride. The heart was quickly excised and washed with tap water. A perfusion cannula was inserted into the LAD at the level of the snare, and the ascending aorta was attached to a perfusion stand. Simultaneously, the LAD was perfused with a 1% solution of triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) buffered to pH 8.5, and the aortic root was perfused with Evans blue at equal pressure (100 mm Hg) for 5 minutes. After perfusion, the atria and right ventricle were excised, the left ventricle was sliced from base to apex in a bread-loaf fashion into sections 1 cm thick, and the slices were weighed. The TTC stained the risk region containing residual viable tissue brick red, while the infarcted tissue remained unstained and appeared tan.20 The control region was stained by the Evans blue. After staining, 20- to 40-mg tissue samples were obtained from the infarct, border, and risk regions as well as the nonischemic (or control) region and flash-frozen at -70°C with liquid nitrogen. These samples were later assessed for myeloperoxidase activity to quantify neutrophil infiltration.21 After samples were obtained for the myeloperoxidase assay, the tissue slices were incubated in TTC at 37°C for an additional 30 minutes to ensure proper staining of ischemic but viable tissue. After TTC staining, both surfaces of each ventricular slice were traced on acetate film to show the histochemical demarcation of the infarct, risk, and control regions. Their respective areas were planimetered and multiplied by the slice weight to determine infarct size as a percentage of myocardium at risk and total left ventricular mass.20 The ventricular slices were then subdivided into approximately 1-g endocardial, midmyocardial, and epicardial pieces. Each piece was weighed and counted for radioactivity together with the reference arterial blood samples in an automated gamma scintillation counter (1282 Compugamma, LKB-Wallac). The energy windows were adjusted for the peak emission of the isotopes used for calculation of regional myocardial blood flow according to the method of Heymann et al.19 Percent segmental shortening was calculated by subtracting the end-systolic segment length determined at end ejection from the end-diastolic length, dividing by the end-diastolic length, and multiplying by 100.

The experimental procedure described conforms to the "Position of the American Heart Association on Research Animal Use" adopted on November 11, 1984.

Statistical Analysis
Results are expressed as mean±SD. For multiple comparison procedures including hemodynamic and coronary flow data, ANOVA and the Newman-Keuls multiple-range test were performed for repeated measures. ANCOVA was performed to compare infarct size in the TLC C-53, PGE1, and placebo groups, with collateral blood flow used as a covariate. P<.05 was considered significant.


*    Results
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 up arrowMethods
*Results
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Of the 30 dogs studied, 9 were excluded from analysis. Seven dogs developed refractory ventricular arrhythmias and died during coronary occlusion before either study drug or placebo infusion. One dog had significant trauma to the LAD during dissection, and the experiment was aborted. The ninth animal was eliminated from analysis because of high transmural collateral blood flow in the ischemic region, which was in excess of 0.4 mL · min-1 · g-1 tissue (>35% of control region flow during LAD occlusion). (The mean transmural ischemic zone blood flow during occlusion for the 21 dogs analyzed was 15.6±8.1% of control region flow.) This left 7 animals randomly assigned to each of the three treatment groups acceptable for analysis.

Hemodynamics
Hemodynamic parameters, including heart rate, mean arterial (aortic) pressure, left atrial pressure, and left ventricular systolic and end-diastolic pressures for placebo-, PGE1-, and TLC C-53–treated dogs are shown in the TableDown. There were no significant differences in heart rate or in the rate-pressure product in the three treatment groups during coronary occlusion or reperfusion. The mean arterial pressure and systolic left ventricular pressure were similar for the three groups at baseline and initially during coronary occlusion before treatment. There was a modest but significant decline in both variables during bolus intravenous administration of TLC C-53 and PGE1 compared with placebo. Significant differences among treatment groups in mean arterial pressure and systolic left ventricular pressure were no longer present 10 minutes after completion of infusion, and there were no significant physiological events during this transient period of relative hypotension.


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  		Table 1. Hemodynamic Parameters During Left Anterior Descending Coronary Artery Ischemia in Placebo-, Prostaglandin E1–, and Liposomal Prostaglandin E1–Treated Dogs

Regional Left Ventricular Function and Dimensions
The myocardial segment end-diastolic lengths were approximately 1.5 cm in the LAD and circumflex regions. Percent fractional shortening in the circumflex region was equivalent in the three study groups. The percent shortening in the LAD region was approximately 13% for all three groups at baseline (Fig 2Down). The LAD segment crystals were placed closer to the apex than the circumflex crystals to maintain the crystals within the ischemic region and hence had slightly increased segmental shortening at baseline. Although the increase in left ventricular end-diastolic length in the ischemic region during occlusion was similar among treatment groups, there was a significantly greater degree of paradoxical systolic expansion (more negative values for percent fractional shortening) for the PGE1 group compared with the TLC C-53 group 10 minutes into coronary occlusion. With reperfusion, the left ventricular end-diastolic length tended to return toward normal and was not different in the three study groups. After 2 hours of reperfusion, there was a trend toward better segmental shortening in the TLC C-53 group, but differences in segmental shortening among treatment groups during reperfusion did not achieve statistical significance.



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  		Figure 2. Graph showing percent segmental shortening in the left anterior descending (LAD) distribution during coronary occlusion (OCCL) and reperfusion (REPER) for liposomal prostaglandin E1 (TLC C-53; diamonds, n=7), prostaglandin E1 (PGE1; triangles, n=7), and placebo (squares, n=7) groups. There was a trend toward better recovery of regional myocardial function during reperfusion with TLC C-53. *P<.05 TLC C-53 vs PGE1.

Effect of TLC C-53 on Myocardial Blood Flow
There were no significant differences in transmural blood flow among treatment groups during ischemia or reperfusion, as shown in Fig 3Down. Mean transmural blood flow in the ischemic region in TLC C-53 dogs declined from 0.82±0.27 to 0.09±0.06 mL · min-1 · g-1 tissue during occlusion. The transmural blood flow ratio of the ischemic to nonischemic regions for the TLC C-53–treated dogs was 1.04±0.09 at baseline, declining to 0.15±0.09 during ischemia. Similar values were observed in the other two groups. After an initial hyperemic phase upon release of the LAD snare, the transmural blood flow to the ischemic region tended to fall below baseline levels after 2 hours of reperfusion in all three treatment groups.



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  		Figure 3. Bar graph showing myocardial blood flow in the ischemic region (IS) expressed as a ratio of blood flow in the nonischemic region (NI) for liposomal prostaglandin E1 (TLC C-53; crosshatched bars, n=7), prostaglandin E1 (PGE1; hatched bars, n=7), and placebo (solid bars, n=7) groups. There were no significant differences among treatment groups during coronary occlusion or reperfusion. LAD indicates left anterior descending coronary artery.

Effect of TLC C-53 on White Blood Cell Infiltration
Measuring the activity of the neutrophil-specific myeloperoxidase enzyme is an indirect but accurate method of quantifying leukocyte infiltration of tissue.21 As shown in Fig 4Down, there was a dramatic reduction in myeloperoxidase activity in the infarct, risk, and border regions of dogs treated with TLC C-53 compared with placebo. Enzyme activity was significantly reduced (P<.05) in the infarct zone with TLC C-53 (0.11±0.1 U/100 mg) treatment compared with PGE1 (0.38±0.3 U/100 mg). There seemed to be an intermediate response with bolus administration of free PGE1 in the border zone and risk region, which did not achieve statistical significance. The nonischemic regions did not differ in enzyme activity.



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  		Figure 4. Bar graph showing myeloperoxidase activity in the infarct, border, risk, and control regions of the liposomal prostaglandin E1 (TLC C-53; crosshatched bars, n=7), prostaglandin E1 (PGE1; hatched bars, n=7), and placebo (solid bars, n=7) groups. A striking reduction in enzyme activity was found in all ischemic regions for TLC C-53 compared with placebo, with PGE1 showing an intermediate effect. *P<.05 TLC C-53 vs placebo; **P<.01 TLC C-53 vs placebo; +P<.05 TLC C-53 vs PGE1.

Effect of TLC C-53 on Infarct Size
Infarct size expressed as a percentage of the area at risk was significantly lower (P<.05) with TLC C-53 (37.9±17.4%) compared with PGE1 (56.7±13.9%) or placebo (58.0±9.9%), as shown in Fig 5Down. The area at risk as a percentage of the left ventricle was similar (22%) for all three groups.



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  		Figure 5. Bar graph showing size of infarct zone (IZ) as a percent of the area at risk (AR) and the risk region and infarct zone as percentages of the left ventricle (LV) for the liposomal prostaglandin E1 (TLC C-53; crosshatched bars, n=7), prostaglandin E1 (PGE1; hatched bars, n=7), and placebo (solid bars, n=7) groups. A significant reduction in infarct size as a percent of the risk region occurred with TLC C-53 compared with PGE1 or placebo. *P<.05 TLC C-53 vs placebo and PGE1.

Infarct size as a percentage of the area at risk was inversely related to collateral blood flow into the ischemic zone during coronary occlusion for the TLC C-53 group (Fig 6Down). The correlation was relatively weak for the placebo group. There was no correlation between infarct size and collateral flow in the PGE1 group. When transmural collateral blood flow to the ischemic region was used as a covariate, infarct size (as a percentage of area at risk) was significantly smaller in the TLC C-53 group compared with either PGE1 or placebo (P<.05). The beneficial treatment effect of TLC C-53 in reducing infarct size was especially evident in dogs with relatively higher levels of collateral blood flow.



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  		Figure 6. Linear regression analysis describing the relation of infarct size expressed as a percentage of the area at risk and collateral blood flow during coronary occlusion in the transmural ischemic zone. By ANCOVA, a significant reduction in infarct size (P<.05) occurred with liposomal prostaglandin E1 (TLC C-53; diamonds, n=7) compared with prostaglandin E1 (PGE1; triangles, n=7) and placebo (squares, n=7) independent of collateral blood flow.


*    Discussion
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 up arrowAbstract
 up arrowIntroduction
 up arrowMethods
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*Discussion
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In experimental models of temporary coronary occlusion, the severity and duration of ischemia are the principal determinants of the degree of reversible myocardial dysfunction that follows reperfusion (myocardial stunning)22 and the extent of irreversible myocardial damage that ensues.23 Other factors that significantly influence infarct size after reperfusion are the area of myocardium in jeopardy, presence of collateral blood flow into the ischemic region, and myocardial demand during occlusion.24 These findings reported in an NHLBI-sponsored cooperative study using a chronic canine model have recently been confirmed in patients with acute myocardial infarction who were injected with 99mTc sestamibi before reperfusion and tomographic imaging.25

Liposomal PGE1 and Reperfusion Injury
In the present study, we found a significant reduction in infarct size and leukocyte infiltration into the infarct, risk, and border regions when TLC C-53 was administered as an intravenous bolus after 2 hours of ischemia immediately before reperfusion. Infarct size expressed as a percentage of the area at risk and white blood cell infiltration of the infarct zone were both significantly reduced with TLC C-53 compared with either an identically administered dose of PGE1 or placebo infusion. Furthermore, when transmural collateral blood flow was used as a covariate according to the method of Reimer et al,24 infarct size (as a percentage of the area at risk) was significantly smaller in the TLC C-53 group compared with either PGE1 or placebo. The beneficial treatment effect of TLC C-53 on infarct salvage was especially evident in dogs with relatively higher collateral blood flow. In contrast to our previous experiments in which bolus infusion of liposomal PGE1 beginning shortly after the onset of ischemia seemed to improve myocardial blood flow in the ischemic region,17 the present study failed to demonstrate significant differences in ischemic zone transmural blood flow among the three treatment groups. Furthermore, there was a similar decline among treatment groups in transmural blood flow after 2 hours of reperfusion to below their respective baseline values, suggesting that the no-reflow phenomenon was not significantly affected by a single bolus administration of TLC C-53 before reperfusion.

Measurements of collateral blood flow were obtained after 10 minutes of ischemia. Although it is possible that further recruitment of collateral vessels might occur later into the ischemic period, in the canine model used, most collateral vessels will open shortly after the onset of ischemia. Measurement of collateral blood flow 10 minutes after occlusion was chosen for the ANCOVA in the Animal Models for Protecting Ischemic Myocardium (AMPIM) Cooperative Study,24 since these values were for the most part not significantly different from values obtained after 105 minutes of coronary occlusion for inner, middle, and outer thirds of the myocardium in either the conscious or unconscious models.

All dogs subject to analysis in this study had transmural collateral blood flow <0.25 mL · min-1 · g-1 tissue, which placed them well within the range for the development of myocardial necrosis. One dog with collateral flow in excess of 0.4 mL · min-1 · g-1 tissue was excluded from analysis. Mean transmural blood flow <0.4 mL · min-1 · g-1 myocardium has been shown to correlate with severe functional impairment (akinesia or dyskinesia) of the involved myocardium26 and corresponds to the level of flow at which myocardial necrosis is first evident.27 28 We used this value as a cutoff for exclusion in other recent studies.18 29

An area at risk of 35% to 45% of the left ventricle is typical when the occlusive snare is placed around the proximal circumflex artery.24 Our protocol involved occlusion of the LAD after the first diagonal branch, which subtends considerably less myocardium than the large, dominant circumflex artery of the dog. The area at risk in this study (22%) is consistent with the findings of other investigators whose experimental protocol involved LAD occlusion distal to the first diagonal branch in a canine model.30 31 Although postmortem myocardial staining occurred at a relatively short interval (2 hours) after coronary occlusion, gross examination of myocardial slices revealed a clear demarcation between the ischemic, risk, and control regions, which was substantiated by regional myocardial blood flow measurements. The ability of TTC staining to differentiate reversibly from irreversibly injured myocardium has been validated histologically after a 2-hour period of reperfusion.32 Moreover, if TTC staining of irreversible myocardium had occurred, as has been suggested for short periods of reperfusion,33 we would have expected a lower infarct size as a percentage of the risk region in the present study compared with other studies using longer reperfusion periods, which was not the case.

Regional myocardial segmental shortening can be reliably measured with sonomicrometer crystals and provides an accurate assessment of ventricular function during coronary ischemia.34 35 We found a trend toward improved recovery of ischemic myocardial dysfunction with free PGE1 and TLC C-53 treatment when measured 1 and 2 hours after reperfusion. Absolute differences in segmental shortening during early reperfusion between the PGE1 and TLC C-53 groups probably reflect pretreatment differences in wall motion rather than a beneficial effect of the liposomal formulation of PGE1. A chronic animal experimental design permitting repeated measurements over 7 to 10 days would be necessary to detect significant differences in recovery from myocardial stunning. Hemodynamic parameters were similar for the three groups except for a transient but significant drop in mean arterial pressure and left ventricular end-diastolic pressure that occurred during the 10-minute infusion of TLC C-53 or free PGE1. This finding was surprising, in light of previous studies that showed more hypotension and tachycardia associated with free PGE1 compared with TLC C-5317 36 and similar hemodynamic parameters during bolus infusion of TLC C-53 or placebo.17 18 No adverse clinical events during the infusion period or excessive bleeding after infusion were noted with the administration of either TLC C-53 or PGE1 in this study.

Since the major determinants of infarct size, including the duration and severity of ischemia, collateral blood flow to the ischemic region, and the rate-pressure product (a measure of myocardial oxygen demand), were similar in the three treatment groups, it is likely that the mechanism of action of TLC C-53 involves attenuation of reperfusion injury, possibly through inhibition of white blood cell activation or infiltration into the ischemic myocardial region. Measuring the activity of the neutrophil-specific azurophilic granule, which contains myeloperoxidase enzyme, is a sensitive method for accurately quantifying leukocyte infiltration during ischemic myocardial injury.21 The significant reduction in myeloperoxidase activity found in the ischemic, risk, and border regions in the TLC C-53–treated dogs would indicate a reduction in the number of infiltrating neutrophils in the ischemic territory after reperfusion.

Although experimental models and clinical trials have established that prompt, effective, and sustained restoration of blood flow after coronary occlusion can limit infarct size, improve ventricular function, and enhance survival,37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 reperfusion triggers an active inflammatory response associated with an intense neutrophilic infiltration of ischemic myocardium that may produce further tissue injury.9 46 47 Because of the difficulty in differentiating ischemic injury from additional tissue damage incurred upon reperfusion of jeopardized myocardium, the concept of reperfusion injury is not universally accepted.47 Recent evidence for programmed cell death determined by the presence of internucleosomal DNA fragmentation in ischemic/reperfused rabbit myocardial tissue, but not in those animals subjected to ischemia alone, has strengthened the concept that reperfusion may also have injurious effects on ischemic, potentially viable myocardium.48 Many potential mechanisms for reperfusion injury have been explored in animal models. Suggested mechanisms include free radical liberation by the endothelium and white blood cells, leukocyte plugging of the microvasculature, the oxygen and calcium paradox, and many others.23 32 49 50 51 52 53 Most recent evidence has emphasized the importance of activation of white blood cells and attachment and transmigration through the endothelium, followed by irreversible myocyte damage.32 54 55 56 Entman and colleagues56 showed that the leukocyte respiratory burst, which irreversibly injures the myocyte, is dependent on adhesion involving CD11b/CD18 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (CD54) and is a local phenomenon. Lefer and colleagues showed that blocking adhesion molecule expression or activity effectively reduces reperfusion injury.57 58 59 Recent preliminary work in our laboratory suggests that TLC C-53 treatment may result in suppression of ICAM-1 and P-selectin expression on ischemic endothelium in a similar 2-hour canine infarct-reperfusion model.60

Since the effects of PGE1 are myriad, other avenues for explanation of the cardioprotective effects of TLC C-53 are open to investigation. TLC C-53 inhibits cyclic flow variations after endothelial injury or coil insertion in canine coronary arteries, in association with significant inhibition of ex vivo platelet aggregation.18 36 In the present study, we were not able to demonstrate differences in microvascular blood flow to the infarct zone among treatment groups. Attenuation of the no-reflow phenomenon would thus be an unlikely mechanism for infarct salvage with TLC C-53 in this experiment.

Pharmacokinetics and Mechanism of Action of TLC C-53
PGE1 is a naturally occurring eicosanoid synthesized in virtually all mammalian tissues. During intravenous infusion, free PGE1 is extensively extracted after a single passage through the lungs (60% to 90% inactivation in patients with normal lung function) and is rapidly metabolized to 15-keto-13,14-dihydro-PGE1, resulting in a half-life of the parent compound of <=30 seconds.61 Further metabolism to 13,14-dihydro-PGE1, which is as effective as PGE1 in lowering blood pressure in rabbits,62 also occurs in humans.63 The presence of active, circulating metabolites of PGE1 could contribute to antiplatelet, antineutrophil, and vasodilating properties that cannot be attributed to the parent compound because of pharmacokinetic considerations.61

TLC C-53 is a stable preparation of PGE1 associated with phospholipid microspheres, which may alter drug transport. Intravenously administered liposomes remain intravascular and are removed predominantly by the reticuloendothelial system. Disruption of the endothelium may permit escape of the liposomes and their contents from the intravascular space and thus enhance delivery to sites of inflammation. The distribution and pharmacokinetics of liposomal compounds are complex and depend on dose, size, and chemical composition, especially lipid content.64 These and other factors will influence the release of the encapsulated pharmacological agents as well as the ability of liposomes to escape the vascular space during various pathological conditions. Unpublished pilot studies performed in male Sprague-Dawley rats suggest that although the mean concentration in plasma of PGE1 was higher for rats given identical doses of the liposomal formulation, TLC C-53, than those given free PGE1, the difference was not large, and the rate and extent of excretion of PGE1 metabolites appeared comparable for the two dosage forms. The elimination half-life in plasma for PGE1 administered as TLC C-53 was approximately 1 minute. In the present study, the free PGE1 and TLC C-53 infusions ended 2 to 5 minutes before the onset of reperfusion. As a result of its short half-life, free PGE1 may have disappeared from the systemic circulation by the time of reperfusion. In addition, the pharmacological effects of PGE1 may be enhanced by selective targeting of white blood cells and neutrophils by the liposomal preparation. Recent evidence suggests that liposomes preferentially target activated leukocytes and potentiate the anti-inflammatory effects of PGE1 on neutrophil function.16 Combined therapy with liposomes and PGE1 was found to prevent lethal endotoxemic shock in rats. The administration of liposomes alone was partially protective, whereas PGE1 given alone adversely affected mortality. Anti-inflammatory effects of prostaglandins mediated by a rise in intracellular cAMP may be potentiated by phagocytosis.65 66 The synergistic anti-inflammatory effect of liposomes and PGE1 on neutrophil function may account for the reduction in infarct size and neutrophil infiltration in the infarct zone with TLC C-53 compared with free PGE1 observed in our study.

Study Limitations
A limitation to the present study involves the choice of an acute open-chest experimental design for evaluation of ventricular function. A chronic animal model may provide more accurate and reproducible measurements of ventricular function during an awake and lightly sedated state as well as permit detection of possible differences in recovery from myocardial stunning among treatment groups. Moreover, the validity of TTC staining to determine the ultimate extent of myocardial injury after a 2-hour period of reperfusion is controversial.32 33 It is possible that TLC C-53 delayed the onset of reperfusion injury without influencing the extent of myocardial damage.

In this study, the free PGE1 and TLC C-53 infusions ended 2 to 5 minutes before the onset of reperfusion. Because of its short half-life, free PGE1 may have disappeared from the systemic circulation by the time of reperfusion, whereas some of the administered dose of liposomal PGE1 may remain bound in the liposomes. Although the effects of PGE1 and those of its metabolites on cellular elements responsible for reperfusion injury may have persisted, an experimental protocol involving the continuous infusion of the pharmacological agents tested well into the reperfusion period might have been a better choice for demonstrating enhanced delivery of one preparation of PGE1 over the other. We chose a more clinically relevant bolus dosing regimen to evaluate the potential usefulness of TLC C-53 as an adjunctive agent in limiting reperfusion injury after thrombolysis in humans.

Conclusions
Bolus intravenous administration of TLC C-53 immediately before reperfusion results in significant infarct salvage and reduced leukocyte infiltration compared with reperfusion alone or identical doses of PGE1. Thus, TLC C-53 may be a useful adjunctive therapy for the treatment of acute myocardial infarction with potential for reducing infarct damage due to reperfusion injury independent of its ability to accelerate thrombolysis and prevent reocclusion, possibly extending the time window for intervention.


*    Acknowledgments
 
This research was funded in part by the Liposome Co, Princeton, NJ. We wish to thank Carnell Parks for his technical assistance.


*    Footnotes
 
Guest editor for this article was Joseph Loscalzo, MD, Boston University Medical Center Hospital, Boston, Mass.

Received January 3, 1995; accepted February 8, 1995.


*    References
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*References
 

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