(Circulation. 1997;96:2407-2413.)
© 1997 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Endothelial Dysfunction and Cardiorenal Injury in Experimental Salt-Sensitive Hypertension
Effects of Antihypertensive Therapy
From the Department of Medicine and Renal Section, Veterans Affairs Medical Center and University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minn.
Correspondence to Leopoldo Raij, MD, VA Medical Center, Nephrology/Hypertension Section, III J, 1 Veterans Dr, Minneapolis, MN 55417. E-mail raijx001{at}maroon.tc.umn.edu
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Abstract |
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Background Pharmacological control of hypertension has contributed to a significant decrease in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, although the beneficial effect on cardiac and renal diseases has been far more modest than the reduction in stroke. The endothelium plays a crucial homeostatic role in the regulation of vascular tone thrombogenesis and vascular remodeling. We studied the relationship between endothelial dysfunction and cardiorenal injury in hypertensive rats and evaluated the effects of two classes of antihypertensive agents commonly used in the clinical setting, a diuretic (DIU) and an ACE inhibitor (CEI).
Methods and Results Dahl salt-sensitive rats (DS) given high dietary salt (4% NaCl) developed hypertension (systolic blood pressure [SBP], 218±9 versus 147±3 mm Hg in DS given 0.5% NaCl; P<.001), which was associated with impaired endothelium-dependent relaxations (EDRs) in aortic rings (ED50, 5.44±.18 versus 7.51±.10; P<.05) and mesenteric vessels (area under the curve, 299±11 versus 217±11 arbitrary units; P<.05). Hypertensive DS also demonstrated depressed nitric oxide synthase activity in the aorta (0.76±.15 versus 2.83±.17 nmol · min-1 · g protein-1; P<.05), left ventricular hypertrophy (0.43±.02 versus 0.29±.02 g ventricular weight/100 g body weight; P<.05), glomerular injury (histological injury score: 151±8 versus 11±2; P<.05), and increased urinary protein excretion (95±21 versus 25±5 mg/24 hours; P<.05). Treatment of DS rats with the CEI perindopril (4.56 mg · kg-1 · d-1) did not affect SBP (225±6 mm Hg) but modestly improved EDR (ED50: 6.07±.37; P<.05 versus hypertensive DS) as well as proteinuria and glomerular histology. Addition of the DIU indapamide (1.44 mg · kg-1 · d-1) normalized SBP (151±2 mm Hg; P<.05), EDR (ED50, 7.33±.08; P<.05), left ventricular hypertrophy (0.27±.01 g/100 g body weight; P<.05), and proteinuria (31±4 mg/24 hours; P<.05) and prevented glomerular injury (injury score: 30±2; P<.05). Monotherapy with DIU reduced SBP (175±3 mm Hg; P<.05) and normalized EDR and left ventricular hypertrophy but did not provide effective renal protection. In hypertensive DS, impaired EDR and left ventricular hypertrophy were positively correlated with SBP. In addition, we found a significant correlation between cardiac hypertrophy and endothelial dysfunction. Indeed, a hierarchical regression analysis revealed that impaired aortic EDR, and therefore decreased aortic compliance, positively contributed to left ventricular hypertrophy in addition to but independently of SBP [F(2, 37)=6.29; P=.004].
Conclusions These studies suggest a dissociation of the endothelial, cardiac, and renal effects of antihypertensive therapy in hypertension and may explain the variable success of antihypertensive regimens in treating hypertension while preventing cardiac and renal damage.
Key Words: cardiovascular diseases • endothelium • hypertension • kidney • nitric oxide
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Introduction |
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During the last two decades, pharmacological control of hypertension has contributed to a significant decrease in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, although the beneficial effect on cardiac and renal diseases has been far more modest than the reduction in stroke.1 2 3 Several explanations for these discrepancies in target-organ protection have been offered, including differences in target-organ sensitivity to the salutary effects of antihypertensive therapy.4 In the case of the heart, failure to effectively reduce coronary artery disease in hypertensive patients has been attributed, at least in part, to inadequate treatment of concomitant risk factors such as dyslipidemia and LVH.5 6 In the case of the kidney, clinical and experimental evidence suggests that to prevent or arrest renal failure, control of systemic hypertension must be accompanied by control of glomerular hypertension.4 7 Thus, an ideal antihypertensive regimen, in addition to normalizing systemic blood pressure, must provide specific cardiac and renal protection.
Clinical studies of populations of patients defined as "salt sensitive" revealed that these patients manifest LVH, microalbuminuria, and paradoxical suppression of atrial natriuretic peptide in response to salt loading.8 9 10 Studies from our laboratory, as well as others, have demonstrated that hypertensive DS rats have many features similar to the aforementioned patients and also develop LVH, renal injury, and endothelial dysfunction.11 12 13 14 Thus, DS rats may be a useful model in which to study target-organ damage in the setting of hypertension.
In the current study, we studied in DS rats the individual and combined effects of two classes of antihypertensive drugs commonly used in the clinical setting: DIUs and CEIs. The effects of these agents on blood pressure, EDR in aorta and mesenteric artery, aortic NOS activity, LVH, and renal injury were evaluated. In addition, we investigated the relationship between blood pressure, impaired endothelial function, and LVH.
The studies reported herein suggest that (1) there is a correlation between impaired aortic endothelial function and LVH that is independent of blood pressure, and (2) levels of systemic blood pressure achieved with antihypertensive therapy may not correlate with the degree of protection provided by these agents in different target organs. These findings may explain the heretofore disparate success achieved clinically in arresting or preventing cardiac and renal hypertensive injuries.
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Methods |
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Materials
Male, 6-week-old (190 to 210 g body weight [BW]) DS rats from the Brookhaven strain were purchased from Harlan Sprague Dawley (Indianapolis, Ind). Indapamide and perindopril were gifts from Servier Laboratories (Paris, France). [14C]L-arginine was purchased from Amersham International. Other chemicals used were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. Dowex resin was purchased from Bio-Rad Laboratories.
Experimental Animals
Five groups of DS rats were used in this study. All rats had
free access to water and were housed five per cage in facilities
accredited by the American Association for Accreditation of Laboratory
Animal Care. The experimental protocols were approved by the
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
All drugs were given for 8 weeks by daily gavage in the morning. One percent hydroxyethylcellulose in distilled water was used as a vehicle for all drugs. The normotensive control group was fed a normal salt diet (0.5% NaCl) and given vehicle (VEH-LS; n=8) by gavage, whereas the hypertensive control group was fed a high-salt diet (4% NaCl) and was also given vehicle by gavage (VEH-HS; n=8). In pilot studies, we administered perindopril, a CEI, in variable doses to DS rats receiving high dietary salt and failed to reduce blood pressure even with a high dose (4.5 mg · kg BW-1 · d-1). Therefore, similar to the clinical situation, we added a DIU, indapamide (1.44 mg · kg BW-1 · d-1), and succeeded in normalizing blood pressure in the DS rats on a high-salt diet. The remaining three groups were all fed the 4% NaCl diet. The DIU group (DIU-HS; n=18) was given indapamide in a dose of 1.44 mg · kg BW-1 · d-1. The CEI group (CEI-HS; n=8) was given perindopril 4.5 mg · kg BW-1 · d-1, and the DIU+CEI group (DIU+CEI-HS; n=14) was given indapamide 1.44 mg · kg BW-1 · d-1 and perindopril 4.5 mg · kg BW-1 · d-1. The experimental diets had protein, mineral, and fat contents similar to the standard rat diet.
SBP was measured every 2 weeks in conscious rats by the tail-cuff method (Physiograph MK IV, Narco Biosystems).15
At the end of 8 weeks, the animals were weighed, anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital (30 mg/kg BW IP), and killed by exsanguination. Aortas and mesenteric vessels were obtained for organ-chamber experiments and perfusion studies, respectively (see below). Hearts from all rats were obtained for determining HW/BW ratios, an index of LVH. Kidneys were removed for morphological examination.15 Thoracic aortas were also obtained for the determination of NOS activity.
Measurement of Urinary Excretion of Protein and
Endothelin-1
After 8 weeks of treatment, 24-hour urine excretion was obtained
in metabolic cages as previously described.15
Urine creatinine was measured with a creatinine
analyzer (Beckman Instruments). Urine protein concentration was
determined with the use of a BioRad protein assay kit16
and expressed in milligrams per 24 hours (UproV). Urinary ET-1 was
measured by radioimmunoassay (Amersham International)17
and expressed in nanograms per milligram of creatinine.
Renal Histology
Kidney tissue was fixed in buffered formalin and stained with
hematoxylin and eosin and periodic acid-Schiff.
Histological evaluation of the kidney was performed by
one of the authors (L.R.) without knowledge of the experimental group
from which the section came. The glomerular lesions were
evaluated by use of a semiquantitative scoring method described
previously.15 Briefly, the severity of the
glomerular lesion was graded from 0 to 4+ according to the
percentage of glomerular involvement. The GIS was
calculated by summing the products of the severity score and the
percentage of glomeruli displaying the same degree of severity.
Organ-Chamber Experiments
Vascular responses in aortas were tested in organ chambers
according to techniques previously described.18 Briefly,
aortic rings were mounted horizontally between two stirrups in organ
chambers filled with 25 mL oxygenated modified Krebs-Ringer
bicarbonate solution (in mmol/L: NaCl 118.6, KCl 4.8,
CaCl2 2.5, MgSO4 1.2,
K2PO4 1.2, NaHCO3 25.1, glucose
10.1, and EDTA 0.026) at 37°C. One stirrup was connected to an anchor
and the other to a force transducer (Gould Statham UTC2) for
recording of isometric tension. Relaxations to ACh
(10-9 to 10-4
mol/L) and SNP (10-9 to
10-4 mol/L) were studied in rings
precontracted to 70% of the maximal contraction to
L-norepinephrine obtained in each individual
ring. Contraction responses to ET-1 (10-10 to
10-7 mol/L) were also studied in aortic
rings from all groups of rats. Contraction to ET-1 was expressed as
percentage of the response to 100 mmol/L KCl in the same
ring.
Vascular Responses in Mesenteric Arteries
Rats were anesthetized by injection of sodium
pentobarbital (30 mg/kg BW IP), and the abdominal wall was
opened. Mesenteric arteries were prepared for perfusion according to
the method described by McGregor.19 The superior
mesenteric artery was cannulated with an 18- or 19-gauge needle via the
abdominal aorta and perfused without ischemia. The entire
preparation was placed into a water-jacketed container maintained at
37°C and perfused with modified Krebs-Ringer bicarbonate solution.
This solution was maintained at 37°C and gassed with 5%
CO2 and 95% O2 to obtain a pH of 7.4.
Phenylephrine (10-6 mol/L)
was added to the Krebs-Ringer solution to maintain vascular tone and
perfusion pressure. The preparation was perfused at a constant flow
rate of 5 mL/min with a roller pump, and the perfusate
was allowed to drain freely and discarded. Perfusion pressure was
recorded with a pressure transducer connected to a polygraph.
Baseline perfusion pressure was maintained at 90 to 100 mm Hg.
The preparation was allowed to equilibrate for 40 minutes, and then
responses to ACh (10-9 to
10-4 mol/L) were studied. Responses to
ACh were expressed as percent decrease of perfusion pressure.
Determination of NOS Activity in Aortas
Thoracic aortas were excised from rats, frozen in liquid
nitrogen, and stored at -80°C until use. Aortas were
homogenized in 3.5 vol of ice-cold buffer solution
containing 50 mmol/L Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 0.1%
mercaptoethanol, 0.1 mmol/L EDTA, 0.1 mmol/L
EGTA, 2 µmol/L leupeptin, 1 µmol/L
pepstatin A, 1 mmol/L PMSF, and 1% Triton-X100 by use of
an Omni TH homogenizer (Omni International). The
homogenates were centrifuged at 20 000g
for 45 minutes, and the supernatants were used for measuring NOS
activity and protein concentration.
The oxidation of L-arginine by NOS was monitored by the conversion of [14C]L-arginine to [14C]L-citrulline at 37°C, which is L-nitro arginine inhibitible.20 Briefly, 60 µL of the supernatant was added to 200 µL of assay buffer containing 50 mmol/L KH2PO4, 1 mmol/L MgCl2, 1 mmol/L CaCl2, 50 mmol/L valine, 1 mmol/L L-citrulline, 20 µmol/L L-arginine, 1 mmol/L dithiothreitol, 2 mmol/L NADPH, 3 µmol/L BH4, 3 µmol/L FAD, 3 µmol/L FMN, and 0.5 µCi/mL [14C]L-arginine HCl. The mixture of supernatant and assay buffer solution was incubated for 30 minutes at 37°C in the presence or absence of either EGTA (1 mmol/L) or EGTA (1 mmol/L) plus L-nitro arginine (1 mmol/L) to determine the level of the Ca2+-dependent and -independent activities. After incubation, the reaction was stopped by adding 500 µL of ice-cold solution containing 20 mmol/L HEPES, 2 mmol/L EDTA, and 2 mmol/L EGTA. Incubated mixture was loaded onto 1-mL columns of Dowex resin (Na form). Columns were then eluted with 500 µL of distilled water. The amounts of [14C]L-citrulline were determined by a liquid scintillation counter. NOS activity was expressed as nanomoles of [14C]L-citrulline formed per gram of protein per minute.
Calculations and Statistical Analysis
Relaxations in aortic rings were expressed as a percent decrease
in tension.18 Contractions to ET-1 in aortic rings were
expressed as a percentage of the contractile response to 100
mmol/L KCl of each individual aortic ring, performed at the
beginning of each experiment. For statistical analysis, the
concentration of the agonist (expressed as -log [mol/L])
evoking 50% relaxation (ED50) and maximal relaxation and
contraction were calculated.18 A hierarchical regression
analysis was used to assess the independent contribution of
blood pressure and aortic endothelial function
(ED50 to ACh) to LVH. In mesenteric vessels, the AUC of the
response to ACh was also calculated, and the results were expressed in
arbitrary units (higher values of AUC correlate with an impaired
response to ACh). Results of the experiments are given as mean±SE.
Statistical analysis was performed by one-way ANOVA between
groups (StatView 512+, BrainPower Inc). Significance was assumed at
P<.05.
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Results |
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Blood Pressure, BW, and HW
SBP, BW, and HW/BW ratio are shown in Table 1
. The time course of SBP progression in
each experimental group is presented in Fig 1. The SBP in the VEH-HS group was
significantly higher than that in the VEH-LS group
(P<.001). Treatment with the CEI did not affect SBP.
Treatment with the DIU significantly reduced but did not normalize SBP.
However, combination therapy with CEI+DIU normalized SBP.
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, VEH-LS; 
, VEH-HS; 
,
DIU-HS; 
, CEI-HS; and 
, DIU+CEI-HS. Values are mean±SE.
*P<.05 vs VEH-HS, 
P<.05 vs VEH-LS.
HW/BW ratio in the hypertensive VEH-HS group was higher than that in
the normotensive VEH-LS group (Table 1
). Monotherapy with CEI failed to
normalize either SBP or HW in DS rats fed a high-salt diet. Although
the DIU did not normalize SBP, HW was normalized by this therapy.
Combination therapy with CEI and DIU normalized both SBP and HW.
Endothelium-Dependent and -Independent Vascular
Relaxations in Aortas
Responses to ACh (10-9 to
10-4 mol/L) were studied in aortic
rings from all groups of rats. Relaxation in response to ACh was
significantly reduced in aortic rings from VEH-HS rats compared with
that from VEH-LS rats (P<.01; Fig 2A). Treatment with DIU or DIU+CEI
normalized the response to ACh, whereas monotherapy with CEI did not
normalize but partially improved EDRs to ACh. The ED50 of
the response to ACh in aortic rings was calculated (Table 2). Treatment
with DIU or DIU+CEI significantly improved the ED50 from
5.58±0.28 (VEH-HS) to 7.10±0.19 (DIU-HS) and 7.22±0.12 (DIU+CEI-HS),
respectively (P<.05). Addition of
indomethacin (10-5
mol/L) to the organ bath did not improve the response to ACh of
aortic rings of hypertensive VEH-HS rats or CEI-HS rats (data not
shown). This suggests that endothelium-contracting
factors derived from cyclooxygenase were not
responsible for the impaired vascular relaxation.12
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Endothelium-independent vascular relaxations to SNP
were similar in all five groups (Table 2
and Fig 2B).
Correlations Among Blood Pressure, LVH, and Endothelial
Function
We found a significant positive correlation between SBP and HW/BW
ratio (Fig 3A) and between SBP and
ED50 of aortic rings to ACh (Fig 3B). Furthermore, we also
found a significant correlation between ED50 to ACh and
HW/BW ratio (Fig 3C). Therefore, a hierarchical regression
analysis was used to assess the independent contribution of
aortic endothelial function (ED50) to the
presence of LVH. The aortic ED50 to ACh variable in
combination with the SBP variable accounted for significantly more
HW/BW ratio variance (multiple R2=0.60) than did
the SBP predictor alone [R2=0.47;
F(2,37)=6.29; P=.004]. This suggests that
independent of the actual levels of blood pressure, impaired aortic
endothelial function fostered LVH.
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Vascular Responses in Mesenteric Arteries
Responses to ACh (10-9 to
10-5 mol/L) were investigated in the
isolated perfused mesenteric arteries from all groups (Fig 4; Table 2). Relaxation responses to ACh
in the VEH-HS group were significantly attenuated compared with the
VEH-LS group (P<.01). Similar to what we observed in
aortas, in mesenteric arteries DIU and DIU+CEI significantly improved
EDRs to ACh and decreased the AUC (P<.01), whereas CEI did
not. However, in contrast to aortas, CEI failed to improve relaxation
to ACh in mesenteric arteries. Moreover, as shown in Fig 4, the maximal
relaxation to ACh in mesenteric vessels was normalized by DIU and by
DIU+CEI but not by CEI.
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Responses to ET-1 in Aortas
Aortic contraction to ET-1 (10-10 to
10-7 mol/L) was evaluated in all groups
of rats. The responses to ET-1 in aortic rings from hypertensive VEH-HS
rats were attenuated compared with normotensive VEH-LS rats (Fig 5). Maximal contraction in VEH-HS was
significantly lower than that in VEH-LS (P<.01; Table 2).
CEI did not affect the response of aortic rings to ET-1; however, DIU
as well as DIU+CEI normalized the response to ET-1
(P<.01).
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Renal Injury
As shown in Fig 6, the VEH-HS
group had a more than threefold higher UproV than the VEH-LS group
(95±21 versus 26±6 mg/24 hours, respectively;
P<.05). CEI reduced UproV despite its lack of effect on
blood pressure. DIU also decreased UproV significantly. However, UproV
in the DIU-HS group and the CEI-HS group was not reduced to values
similar to those obtained in the normotensive VEH-LS group, whereas
treatment with DIU+CEI was effective in normalizing UproV.
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GIS was measured in kidneys from all experimental groups (Fig 7). VEH-HS rats demonstrated a markedly
increased GIS compared with VEH-LS rats (151±8 versus 11±2,
respectively; P<.05). However, whereas treatment with DIU
or CEI reduced GIS by 
50%, the combination of DIU and CEI decreased
GIS by 80% (to 30±2).
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Urinary ET-1 Excretion
Fig 8A shows ET-1 excretion in urine
from all groups of rats. Compared with the VEH-LS group, the
hypertensive VEH-HS rats showed an increased excretion of ET-1
(2.08±0.14 versus 1.49±0.08 ng/mg of creatinine,
respectively; P<.05). Treatment with DIU or DIU+CEI reduced
ET-1 excretion significantly, whereas the CEI did not decrease ET-1
excretion in hypertensive DS rats. Moreover, urinary excretion of ET-1
was significantly correlated with UproV (r=.69,
P<.01; Fig 8B) and with the glomerular injury
observed histologically.
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NOS Activity in Aortas
Ca2+-dependent NOS activity was determined in
aortas of all groups of rats (Fig 9). NOS
was significantly lower in hypertensive VEH-HS rats than in
normotensive VEH-LS rats (0.755±.150 versus 2.829±.169 nmol ·
min-1 · g
protein-1; P<.05). DIU or DIU+CEI
normalized NOS activity; however, CEI did not affect NOS activity. No
significant Ca2+-independent NOS was found in the aortas
studied.
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Discussion |
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Hypertensive DS rats developed impaired EDRs in aortas and mesenteric vessels, and this finding was accompanied by LVH and glomerular injury. Vascular relaxation to SNP, an endothelium-independent vasorelaxant, remained normal. The combination of the CEI (perindopril) and the DIU (indapamide) effectively controlled blood pressure as well as prevented endothelial dysfunction, LVH, and glomerular injury.
CEI monotherapy failed to normalize blood pressure. This finding was not unexpected because clinically and experimentally, high dietary salt promotes resistance to the antihypertensive effect of CEI.21 22 23 In these hypertensive DS rats, perindopril did not reduce LVH. CEI provided partial protection to the aortic but not the mesenteric endothelium.
Monotherapy with indapamide resulted in striking normalization of LVH as well as EDR in aortas and mesenteric vessels while only partially reducing SBP. The mechanisms involved in the beneficial cardiovascular effects of indapamide-independent blood pressure reduction are unclear at the present and may be due to a unique pharmacological effect of this agent.24 Furthermore, recent experimental and clinical studies have made similar observations.25 26
Our studies also revealed that in hypertensive rats with impaired EDR, vascular contraction in response to endothelin is also attenuated. Moreover, normalization of EDR with antihypertensive therapy consisting of either DIU or DIU+CEI was accompanied by a restoration of ET-1–mediated vascular contraction. Studies in other models of experimental hypertension have shown increased ET-1 synthesis in the vascular wall,27 impaired vascular contraction in response to ET-1,28 29 and partial improvement of blood pressure with endothelin receptor antagonists.30 Because NO has been reported to downregulate ET-1 synthesis,31 the increased vascular ET-1 in these hypertensive models may be linked to decreased NO bioactivity, whereas impaired contraction in response to exogenous ET-1 may be due to downregulation of endothelin receptors. In the present study, the fact that hypertensive therapy improved both relaxation to ACh and constriction to ET-1 supports this hypothesis.
The current study confirms that there is a positive correlation between
blood pressure and LVH (Fig 3A) and a negative correlation between
blood pressure and EDR (Fig 3B). Most importantly, we found that
independent of blood pressure, there is a positive correlation between
impaired aortic EDR and LVH (Fig 3C). The endothelium
plays an important homeostatic role in the maintenance of
normal vascular compliance.32 33 Previous clinical and
experimental studies34 35 36 have demonstrated that in
hypertension, although pressure and volume overload are the major
determinants of LVH, other contributing factors are important. On the
basis of our findings, we suggest that aortic
endothelial function may also be a contributing factor
to the development of LVH. This hypothesis is supported by observations
made in hypertensive patients by use of invasive intravascular
recordings, which have demonstrated that the NO donor SNP
completely normalizes vascular compliance independently of blood
pressure effects.37
We found that NOS activity in the aortas of hypertensive DS rats was lower than in normotensive DS rats. Hayakawa et al previously reported that renal NO release is reduced in hypertensive DS rats.11 The decreased NOS activity shown in aortas of hypertensive DS rats is compatible with the studies reported previously and can explain the impaired EDR in this hypertensive model.11 12 13 14 Moreover, SHR develop significantly less LVH than DS rats in response to hypertension of similar severity. Because SHR but not DS rats upregulate cardiac NOS activity, the reduced LVH observed in SHR has been attributed, at least in part, to the inhibitory effects of cardiac NO on vascular growth.14 In the present studies, treatment with DIU or DIU+CEI improved aortic cNOS activity; however, CEI did not. We speculate that normalization of NOS activity can explain, at least in part, the improvement in EDR by these antihypertensive treatments. These observations suggests that the beneficial effects of CEI on vascular endothelium38 39 are less evident in salt-sensitive hypertensive animals receiving high dietary salt.
It has been reported that hypertensive Dahl rats, due to deficient autoregulation of preglomerular vascular resistances, develop high glomerular capillary pressure and subsequent glomerular injury early in the course of hypertension.7 15 In the present studies, neither monotherapy with CEI nor the DIU indapamide was accompanied by effective renal protection. Only combination therapy with CEI and DIU arrested glomerular injury. The modest reduction in glomerular injury and proteinuria observed with the CEI may be due to the known effects of these agents in reducing glomerular capillary pressure independently of their effects on SBP.7
In summary, we have studied vascular function in conduit as well as resistance vessels and concomitant structural changes in the heart and the kidney in a genetic model of salt-dependent hypertension. We have demonstrated a close link between aortic endothelial function and LVH that is independent of blood pressure levels. Furthermore, these findings may shed light on the pathophysiological mechanisms by which the beneficial effect of antihypertensive agents may vary in different target organs (eg, prevention of LVH without concomitant renal protection). In addition, our studies emphasize that the salutary effects of these agents depend on hemodynamic as well as nonhemodynamic factors. These studies may provide insights for the treatment of hypertension in patients, with the goal of preventing end-organ injury.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by a grant from the Department of Veterans Affairs and Servier. The authors gratefully acknowledge Janeth Guerra and Dawn Holms for their technical assistance, Dr Jonathan Tolins for reviewing the manuscript, and Barb Devereaux for secretarial support.
Received January 13, 1997; revision received May 12, 1997; accepted May 20, 1997.
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