(Circulation. 1999;99:53-59.)
© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Clinical Investigation and Reports |
Superoxide Production, Risk Factors, and Endothelium-Dependent Relaxations in Human Internal Mammary Arteries
From the Department of Anesthesiology (C.H., T.M., K.Y., F.S., J.H.L.) and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiology (S.K., D.G.H.) and Hematology and Oncology (J.N.W.), Emory University Hospital, Atlanta, Ga, and Department of Anesthesiology, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Ala (M.M.T.).
Correspondence to Jerrold H. Levy, MD, Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University Hospital, 1364 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322. E-mail jerrold_levy{at}emory.org
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Abstract |
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Background—In a variety of disease states, endothelium-dependent vasodilation is abnormal. Reduced nitric oxide (NO) production, increased destruction of NO by superoxide, diminished cellular levels of L-arginine or tetrahydrobiopterin, and alterations in membrane signaling have been implicated. We examined these potential mechanisms in human vessels.
Methods and Results—Relaxations to acetylcholine, the calcium ionophore A23187, and nitroglycerin, as well as superoxide production and NO synthase expression, were examined in vascular segments from patients with identified cardiovascular risk factors. Endothelium-dependent relaxations were also studied after incubation with L-arginine, L-sepiapterin, and liposome-entrapped superoxide dismutase (SOD) and after organoid culture with cis-vaccenic acid. Relaxations to acetylcholine and to a lesser extent the calcium ionophore A23187 were highly variable and correlated with the number of risk factors present among the subjects studied. Treatment of vessels with L-arginine, L-sepiapterin, liposome-entrapped SOD, or cis-vaccenic acid did not augment endothelium-dependent relaxations. Hypercholesterolemia was the only risk factor associated with high levels of superoxide; however, there was no correlation between superoxide production and the response to either endothelium-dependent vasodilator used.
Conclusions—In human internal mammary arteries, depressed endothelium-dependent relaxations could not be attributed to increases in vascular superoxide production, deficiencies in either L-arginine or tetrahydrobiopterin, or reduced membrane fluidity. Variability in signaling mechanisms may contribute to the differences in responses to acetylcholine and the calcium ionophore A23187.
Key Words: arteries • atherosclerosis • endothelium • nitric oxide • risk factors
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Introduction |
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In several disease states, endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation is abnormal. The mechanisms underlying this abnormality of vascular function remain controversial. In both experimental animal and human vessels, atherosclerosis has been shown to reduce relaxation to acetylcholine more impaired than relaxation to a calcium ionophore.1 This suggests an alteration in membrane signaling, perhaps because of alterations in G-protein function.2 3 This concept has been controversial because others have reported that endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation to the calcium ionophore A23187 is also abnormal in vessels from hypercholesterolemic animals and humans.4 5 6 Another mechanism underlying altered endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation relates to increased oxidative degradation of nitric oxide (NO·). The aortas of cholesterol-fed rabbits produce large amounts of superoxide anions (·O2-), which are probably responsible for inactivation of NO·.5 6 7 Furthermore, peroxynitrite anion, the product of the reaction between NO· and ·O2-, can oxidize lipoproteins,8 and oxidized lipoproteins can in turn inhibit endothelial Gi-protein expression and function.9 10 Thus, alterations in signaling might be related to increases in the production of oxygen radicals in the vessel. A final mechanism thought to be responsible for alterations in NO· release relates to an insufficient supply of the substrate L-arginine or the cofactor of NO synthase tetrahydrobiopterin.11 12
Studies of vascular function in humans are largely performed in vivo. In this situation, it is difficult to control factors such as the baseline tone of the vessel or neurohumoral influences. In vivo studies are also limited because of time constraints and safety issues regarding interventional drugs in humans. Finally, it is impossible to directly assess ·O2- production of vessels in vivo.
Given these considerations, we studied internal mammary artery (IMA) segments, a vascular segment relatively free of atherosclerosis, obtained from humans undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery. A striking preliminary finding was the marked variability of responses to acetylcholine among the various subjects. By using in vitro techniques and the organoid culture approach, we were able to examine potential mechanisms that may diminish endothelium-dependent vasodilation.
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Methods |
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Patient Characteristics and Risk Factors
Age >60 years and plasma cholesterol levels >200 mg/dL were considered risk factors. Cigarette smoking was excluded as a risk factor if patients stopped smoking >6 months before surgery. In addition, a history of either hypertension or diabetes was considered a risk factor. Drugs used by each patient were determined by chart review.
Vessel Preparation
Immediately after removal, distal segments of the left IMA, not
used for surgical implantation, were placed in a container with
modified Krebs-HEPES buffer6 and maintained at 4°C.
After transfer to the laboratory, connective tissue was removed, and
the IMA was cut into ring segments for subsequent study.
Isolated Vascular Ring Experiments
Studies of isometric tension development were performed on 4 to
6 IMA ring segments from each subject by use of methods previously
reported.5 6 A resting tension of 2.5 g was
progressively applied. All experiments were performed in the presence
of indomethacin (10-5 mol/L) to
prevent the synthesis of vascular prostaglandins. After 30
minutes of equilibration, IMA segments were precontracted with the
thromboxane A2 analog (U46619,
10-8.5 mol/L). All rings were exposed
cumulatively to acetylcholine (10-8 to
10-3 mol/L). The vessels were washed 3 times
with fresh buffer and allowed to equilibrate for 30 minutes. The rings
were then randomly selected to be exposed to either the calcium
ionophore A23187 (10-8 to
10-5 mol/L) or nitroglycerin
(10-10 to 10-6 mol/L). In
other experiments, the peak responses to histamine (0.3 µmol/L)
and bradykinin (1 µmol/L) were compared with the peak responses
to 1 µmol/L acetylcholine. In other experiments, vessels were
incubated with either L-arginine
(10-3 mol/L) or L-sepiapterin
(10-5 mol/L) in organ chambers for 30 minutes
before and during the experiment.
Liposomal-Entrapped Superoxide Dismutase.
Liposomal-entrapped superoxide dismutase (SOD) was prepared as
described previously.13 IMA segments were incubated for 45
minutes at 37°C in Krebs/HEPES buffer containing 1500 U/mL of SOD.
After incubation, the rings were washed of the liposomal-entrapped SOD
and studied in organ chambers as described above. Liposomes without SOD
were used as controls for these experiments. In other studies, vessels
were exposed to liposomal-entrapped SOD for 24 hours by use of organoid
culture conditions as described below.
Vessel Organoid Culture
We used organoid culture to permit prolonged exposure of
vessels, liposome-entrapped SOD, sepiapterin, or
cis-vaccenic acid,. Briefly, IMAs were harvested and
maintained in sterile conditions. Segments were then placed in M-199
supplemented with amino acids, L-glutamine
(2 mmol/L), penicillin-streptomycin (100U/mL), and vitamins in
35-mm tissue culture plates. These were maintained in a humidified
incubator at 37°C and 5% CO2 for 1 day with or
without the various interventions. Preliminary studies showed that
vessels maintained under these conditions had similar responses to
various vasoactive agents before and after the culture period (Table 1
).
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Immunocytochemistry
Serial sections of IMAs from 26 randomly selected patients were
examined for endothelial cell integrity. Briefly,
frozen paraformaldehyde-fixed tissues sections were
thawed and fixed in acetone for 5 minutes, dried, and rehydrated in
PBS. Endothelial cells were identified by use of Ulex
lectin (Vector Laboratories)14 with the Vectastain ABC
alkaline phosphatase system and Vector substrate kit I (red
reaction product).
Immunocytochemistry for endothelial NO synthase immunostaining (eNOS) was performed with antibody H-32 (1/100 dilution of tissue culture supernatant).15 The primary antibody was applied in 1.0% BSA in PBS and incubated in a humidified chamber for 60 minutes at room temperature. The sections were washed in PBS and then incubated with a biotinylated secondary antibody (horse anti-mouse IgG at a 1/400 dilution; Vector Laboratories) in PBS containing 1.0% BSA and 2.0% normal horse serum for 30 minutes at room temperature. This was followed by washing in PBS and incubation with the avidin-biotin enzyme complex and chromogenic substrate as described by the manufacturer. NOS proteins were visualized with the Vectastain Elite ABC peroxidase system (Vector Laboratory). Staining was not present in sections treated with secondary antibodies only or with nonimmune IgG.
Measurements of Vascular Superoxide Production
IMA segments were placed in a modified Krebs-HEPES buffer and
allowed to equilibrate for 30 minutes at 37°C. Superoxide
production was estimated with lucigenin-enhanced
chemiluminescence as previously described.6 13 Counts were
obtained at 2-minute intervals at room temperature for 20 minutes, and
the respective background counts were later subtracted. The vessels
were then dried by placing them in a 90°C oven for 24 hours for
determination of dry weight. For all estimates of superoxide
production, 2 vessel segments with and two without
endothelium were studied. In each case, the results
from the 2 segments were averaged, and this average value was used for
subsequent analysis.
Materials
Acetylcholine, the calcium ionophore A23187,
nitroglycerin, indomethacin,
L-arginine, L-sepiapterin,
cis-vaccenic acid (cis-11-octadecanoic acid), and
lucigenin (bis-N-methylacridinium nitrate) were obtained
from Sigma Chemical Co. The thromboxane
A2 analog (U46619) was obtained from the Upjohn
Co. The calcium ionophore A23187 was dissolved in ethanol (final
concentration, 0.1%). cis-Vaccenic acid was diluted in
ethanol (500 mmol/L). Indomethacin was dissolved
in a 50 mmol/L solution of sodium carbonate. All dilutions were
prepared in distilled water and stored in ice.
Calculations and Statistical Analysis
Data are expressed as mean±SEM. Vascular relaxations are
expressed as percent of thromboxane
A2 analog–induced vasoconstriction. Responses to
each agent were obtained in 3 to 4 vascular segments and averaged for
each patient. The numbers provided refer to the number of patients.
Statistical analysis was performed by a t test
for unpaired observations or by a Mann-Whitney U test when
the distribution of variances was heterogeneous, as
determined by a z test for proportionals. To
determine the influence of individual risk factors on vascular
superoxide production and endothelium-dependent
vascular relaxation, stepwise multiple linear regression was used. To
compare the influence of varying number of risk factors on
endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation, ANOVA
followed by Scheffé's test was used. Simple linear regression
analysis was used for determining the relation between 2
variables. A value of P<0.05 was considered
statistically significant.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Patient Characteristics
For initial studies examining vascular relaxations to acetylcholine, the calcium ionophore A23187, and nitroglycerin, IMAs from 97 patients undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery were studied. Of these, 63 were men and 34 were women. Only 3 women were receiving estrogen replacement. Male and female populations differed by the frequency of cigarette smoking and hypercholesterolemia (Table 2
). The frequency of therapy with
long-acting nitrates was greater in women compared with men. Almost all
patients were on multiple drug therapy.
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Vascular Relaxations
Endothelium-dependent relaxations to acetylcholine
were quite variable in both men and women, with values ranging from
0% to 89%. In men, the maximal response to acetylcholine was
38±3.3% (Figure 1). Responses to the
calcium ionophore A23187 were greater than those to acetylcholine, with
a maximal relaxation of 64±3% (range, 18% to 100%). These responses
followed a similar pattern in women, although relaxations to
acetylcholine were significantly less than those observed in men
(P=0.0025 by Mann-Whitney U test).
Nitroglycerin produced potent relaxations of all
vessels of both sexes.
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There was no influence of drug therapy on the degree of endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation to either acetylcholine or the calcium ionophore (data not shown).
Risk Factors and Endothelial Dysfunction
Although 4 risk factors were studied, we had only 4 men and 6
women with 4 risk factors and therefore analyzed only subjects
with 1 to 3 risk factors. For both acetylcholine and the calcium
ionophore A23187, responses were significantly diminished in subjects
with 3 compared with 1 risk factor (Figure 2). Thus, some of the variability
observed in endothelium-dependent vascular relaxations
was likely due to the number of risk factors present.
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Superoxide Anion Production and
Endothelium-Dependent Relaxations
The average lucigenin signal was 4589±554 counts per minute
per 1 mg (range, 669 to 12 309 counts per minute per 1 mg).
Endothelium removal resulted in a significant decrease
in lucigenin counts (3135±450 counts per minute per 1 mg; range, 88 to
9959 counts per minute per 1 mg; P=0.04). This finding
suggests that in human IMAs, the endothelium is an
important source of ·O2-
production. Importantly, there was no correlation between
levels of ·O2-
production and the maximal response to either acetylcholine or
the calcium ionophore (Figure 3).
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We further examined the types of risk factor present and how
they affected both endothelium-dependent vasodilation
and ·O2-
production. Patients were then divided into those with and
those without each risk factor, and the lucigenin signal and peak
response to acetylcholine were averaged (Figure 4). In this analysis, absence of
a risk factor did not imply that other risk factors were not
present. Only in the case of
hypercholesterolemia was steady-state
·O2- production
increased. In subjects with diabetes, hypertension, or cigarette
smoking, ·O2-
production was similar to those without these respective risk
factors. Of note, even though the vascular
·O2- production
was highest in individuals with
hypercholesterolemia, responses to
acetylcholine and the calcium ionophore A23187 were similar to those
without hypercholesterolemia. In contrast,
smokers tended to have lower levels of
·O2- production
yet had the worst impairment in endothelium-dependent
vascular relaxation (Figure 4). Of interest, there was an
inverse correlation between age and the levels of vascular
·O2- production
(Figure 5). Stepwise multiple linear
regression analysis indicated that age and
hypercholesterolemia independently influenced
superoxide production and that smoking significantly diminished
endothelium-dependent vascular relaxations.
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We further considered the possibility that
·O2- produced within the
medial layer, which might escape detection by lucigenin-enhanced
chemiluminescence, could reduce endothelium-dependent
vascular relaxation. To address this issue, we incubated vessels for
either 45 minutes (in HEPES buffer) or 24 hours in the organoid culture
in liposome-entrapped SOD (750 U/mL). As shown in Figure 6, treatment with liposome-entrapped SOD
for 45 minutes and 24 hours did not affect
endothelium-dependent vascular relaxations.
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and 
) and calcium ionophore
A23187 dose responses (
and 
). Vascular rings were incubated at
37°C for 45 minutes in HEPES/Krebs buffer containing 750 U/mL of
liposome-entrapped SOD (A). In other experiments, vascular segments
were incubated for 24 hours in organoid culture containing 750 U/mL of
liposome-entrapped SOD (B). Responses to acetylcholine and calcium
ionophore A23187 were similar in presence or absence of liposome
entrapped SOD in both experiments (n=6).
Effects of L-Arginine and L-Sepiapterin
Vessels were treated with either L-arginine
(10-3 mol/L) or sepiapterin
(10-5 mol/L) for 30 minutes before and during
administration of either acetylcholine or the calcium ionophore A23187.
Neither intervention affected relaxations to either vasodilator (Figure 7). Of note, responses to the calcium
ionophore were slightly worsened by sepiapterin (P=0.01). In
6 additional studies, we also treated vessels for 24 hours with
sepiapterin (10-5 mol/L) in the organoid culture
before study. This likewise did not improved vascular relaxations (data
not shown).
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Correlation of Responses Between Acetylcholine, Histamine, and
Bradykinin
As shown in Figure 8, there was an
excellent correlation between peak relaxations to acetylcholine and
histamine (Figure 8A), whereas the relaxations caused by
acetylcholine and bradykinin were poorly correlated (Figure 8B).
Thus, it would appear that alterations in
endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation to
acetylcholine are mirrored by impaired responses to histamine but not
bradykinin.
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Alterations in Membrane Fluidity
To enhance membrane fluidity, vessels were exposed to
cis-vaccenic acid (5 mmol/L) for 24 hours in the
organoid culture.16 Responses to the calcium
ionophore A23187 and acetylcholine were not altered by this treatment
(Figure 9).
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Immunohistochemistry
IMA segments were free of atherosclerosis as
determined by immunohistochemistry. Ulex staining in vessels from 26
patients showed that the intimal surface was almost uniformly covered
with endothelium.
We compared eNOS in IMA segments from 3 patients with reasonably intact
relaxations to acetylcholine (>60%) to immunostaining
in 3 patients with markedly diminished acetylcholine-induced
relaxations. Despite the marked differences in acetylcholine responses,
immunostaining for eNOS was quite similar among these
various segments (Figure 10).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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In the present study, the range of relaxations to acetylcholine varied from 0% to 70% and for the calcium ionophore A23187 from 18% to 100%. It would appear, therefore, that some patients exhibited extremely reduced endothelium-dependent vascular relaxations to these agents, particularly acetylcholine. We performed an extensive number of additional studies to attempt to ascertain the mechanism responsible for these seemingly impaired responses. Using an organoid culture approach, we were able to expose vessels to various interventions for
24 hours. We were unable to augment relaxations to both
endothelium-dependent agents using either
L-arginine, L-sepiapterin, liposome-entrapped
SOD, or cis-vaccenic acid. The variability of vascular relaxations observed in these studies was probably not due to inadvertent endothelial denudation in some segments. Histological examination revealed an intact endothelial layer in all but a rare segment studied. Even in those, Ulex staining demonstrated >80% endothelial coverage of the internal elastic lamina.
Our present findings agree with those of Vita and coworkers,17 who showed that responses of coronary arteries to acetylcholine correlate with the number of risk factors present. Although many of our subjects had multiple risk factors, smoking was notably associated with impaired endothelium-dependent relaxations. In contrast, it was impossible to demonstrate that the presence of any 1 other risk factor worsened these responses. This is likely because most patients had >1 risk factor, and the absence of any 1 risk factor did not exclude the possibility that other risk factors might contribute to alterations in endothelial function.
In previous work, hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis in experimental animals have been associated with an increase in vascular superoxide production.6 18 19 Superoxide reacts rapidly with NO·, leading to the formation of less vasoactive molecules; indeed, in previous studies, the use of SOD or inhibitors of ·O2- production improved endothelium-dependent vascular relaxations dramatically.5 6 18 19 We were unable to show that a similar phenomenon occurred in vessels from human subjects. Notably, there was no association between ·O2- production and the response to either endothelium-dependent vasodilator used, and responses were not improved by treatment with liposome-entrapped SOD. In keeping with previous studies in animals, hypercholesterolemia was associated with an increase in ·O2- production as assessed by lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence.6 19 Importantly, among the 12 vessels treated with liposome-entrapped SOD, 5 were from patients with hypercholesterolemia, and even among this subgroup in which ·O2- production was increased, liposome-entrapped SOD did not improve endothelium-dependent vasodilation. It is unlikely that oxygen radical production produced long-term changes in vascular function, such as nitration of G proteins by peroxynitrite, because a 24-hour treatment with liposome-entrapped SOD did not improve endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation.
An interesting finding in the present study is that there was an inverse correlation between age and vascular ·O2- production. The mechanisms responsible for this remain unclear; however, this may reflect a replacement of vascular cells with collagen, which occurs with aging.20
Treatment with both L-arginine and tetrahydrobiopterin has
been reported to improve responses to acetylcholine in the human
brachial artery.11 12 In the present study, neither
was effective. Our findings are partially in agreement with studies by
Bossaller et al,1 Flavahan,2 and Shimokawa et
al,3 who have suggested that alterations in
endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation in
hypercholesterolemia and after
endothelial regeneration are due to abnormalities of
G-protein function. These investigators have consistently
observed markedly abnormal responses to the acetylcholine and other
G-protein–mediated agents, whereas responses to the calcium ionophore
A23187, which bypasses G-protein signaling, are relatively normal. One
explanation for alterations in G-protein signaling is related to
changes in membrane fluidity, preventing interactions of the G proteins
with the receptors responsible for eNOS activation.21 We
attempted to address this using cis-vaccenic acid. This
agent has been shown to enhance G-protein function in turkey
erythrocyte membranes; however, it had no effect on responses in the
present experiments. An alternative explanation is that
Gi-protein expression is impaired by the various
risk factors present in this population. This would not likely be
improved by exposure to cis-vaccenic acid. Such a concept is
in accord with studies by Tsutsui et al,22 who showed
that Gi
expression was impaired by age,
hypertension, and hypercholesterolemia. Others
have shown that both native and minimized oxidized LDL interferes with
receptor activation of Gi proteins and in some
cases alters GI-protein
expression.9 23 24 Of note, an excellent correlation
between peak responses to histamine and acetylcholine was found. Both
acetylcholine and histamine use Gi and bradykinin
uses Gq as the principal signaling G
protein.25 In keeping with this, responses to
acetylcholine and bradykinin were not well correlated.
The present studies, while providing insight into how risk factors might affect endothelial function, may not be applicable to overt atherosclerosis. The vessel studied, the IMA, is relatively free of atherosclerosis, and in the present experiments, histological examination revealed a virtual absence of intimal thickening in the IMA segments studied. Likewise, the present studies may not reflect conditions soon after the onset of exposure to risk factors. It is conceivable that the acute effect of conditions such as hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and cigarette smoking might be quite different than the effects of these many years after their onset. In keeping with this, short-term animal models have supported a role for many of the factors that seem to have been excluded in these studies, such as increases in ·O2- production, alterations in tetrahydrobiopterin supply, or alterations in L-arginine use in conditions such as hypercholesterolemia.
In summary, the present studies demonstrate a marked variability in endothelium-dependent vascular relaxations to both acetylcholine and the calcium ionophore A23187, which may in part be due to differences in risk factors present among the individuals studied. We were unable to attribute reduced responses to increases in vascular ·O2- production, deficiencies in either L -arginine or tetrahydrobiopterin, or changes in membrane fluidity. Variability in signaling mechanisms may contribute to the differences in responses to acetylcholine and the calcium ionophore A23187. In the future, efforts toward enhancing endothelial G-protein expression and receptor coupling may be of benefit in improving endothelial function.
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Acknowledgments |
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We thank Donald D. Denson, PhD, Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Ga, for his assistance in analyzing the data.
Received April 22, 1998; revision received September 15, 1998; accepted September 25, 1998.
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T. J. Guzik, J. Sadowski, B. Kapelak, A. Jopek, P. Rudzinski, R. Pillai, R. Korbut, and K. M. Channon Systemic Regulation of Vascular NAD(P)H Oxidase Activity and Nox Isoform Expression in Human Arteries and Veins Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., September 1, 2004; 24(9): 1614 - 1620. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Blau, B. Thony, J. Vasquez-Vivar, and S. Rajagopalan Possible Impact of Tetrahydrobiopterin and Sepiapterin on Endothelial Dysfunction * In Response: Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., May 1, 2003; 23(5): 913 - 915. [Full Text] [PDF]
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Q. N. Diep, M. El Mabrouk, J. S. Cohn, D. Endemann, F. Amiri, A. Virdis, M. F. Neves, and E. L. Schiffrin Structure, Endothelial Function, Cell Growth, and Inflammation in Blood Vessels of Angiotensin II-Infused Rats: Role of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-{gamma} Circulation, May 14, 2002; 105(19): 2296 - 2302. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Heitzer, T. Schlinzig, K. Krohn, T. Meinertz, and T. Munzel Endothelial Dysfunction, Oxidative Stress, and Risk of Cardiovascular Events in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease Circulation, November 27, 2001; 104(22): 2673 - 2678. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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