(Circulation. 1999;99:1906-1913.)
© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Basic Science Reports |
Mapping of Atrial Activation With a Noncontact, Multielectrode Catheter in Dogs
From the Division of Cardiology (A.K.), Department of Internal Medicine, and the Feinberg Cardiovascular Research Institute, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Ill; Endocardial Solutions (J.H., B.P., G.B.), Minneapolis, Minn; and University of Minnesota Medical School and the Minneapolis VA Hospital (C.G.), Minneapolis, Minn.
Correspondence to Alan Kadish, MD, Northwestern Memorial Hospital, 250 E Superior St, Suite 520, Chicago, IL 60611. E-mail a-kadish{at}nwu.edu
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Abstract |
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Background—Endocardial mapping of sustained arrhythmias has traditionally been performed with a roving diagnostic catheter. Although this approach is adequate for many tachyarrhythmias, it has limitations. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a novel noncontact mapping system for assessing atrial tachyarrhythmias.
Methods and Results—The mapping system consists of a 9F multielectrode-array balloon catheter that has 64 active electrodes and ring electrodes for emitting a locator signal. The locator signal was used to construct a 3-dimensional right atrial map; it was independently validated and was highly accurate. Virtual electrograms were calculated at 3360 endocardial sites in the right atrium. We evaluated right atrial activation by positioning the balloon catheter in the mid right atrium via a femoral venous approach. Experiments were performed on 12 normal mongrel dogs. The mean correlation coefficient between contact and virtual electrograms was 0.80±0.12 during sinus rhythm. Fifty episodes of atrial flutter induced in 11 animals were evaluated. In the majority of experiments, complete or almost complete reentrant circuits could be identified within the right atrium. Mean correlation coefficient between virtual and contact electrograms was 0.85±0.17 in atrial flutter. One hundred fifty-six episodes of pacing-induced atrial fibrillation were evaluated in 11 animals. Several distinct patterns of right atrial activation were seen, including single-activation wave fronts and multiple simultaneous-activation wave fronts. Mean correlation coefficient between virtual and contact electrograms during atrial fibrillation was 0.81±0.18. The accuracy of electrogram reconstruction was lower at sites >4.0 cm from the balloon center and at sites with a high spatial complexity of electrical activation.
Conclusions—This novel noncontact mapping system can evaluate conduction patterns during sinus rhythm, demonstrate reentry during atrial flutter, and describe right atrial activation during atrial fibrillation. The accuracy of electrogram reconstruction was good at sites <4.0 cm from the balloon center, and thus the system has the ability to perform high-resolution multisite mapping of atrial tachyarrhythmias in vivo.
Key Words: atrial flutter • fibrillation • mapping
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Introduction |
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Multisite cardiac activation mapping with roving diagnostic catheters has provided insight into the mechanism and origin of a number of clinical and experimental arrhythmias.1 2 3 Although intraoperative, computerized, multisite mapping techniques have proved successful during arrhythmia surgery, endocardial catheter mapping is limited by the number of simultaneous-acquisition sites that are available at a single time point.4 Approaches to multisite endocardial mapping include standard multielectrode catheters, expanding electrode arrays,1 or mobile magnetic localizing catheters.5 One other potential approach is to use a mathematical inverse solution to "estimate" electrical potentials at sites that are not in direct contact with an electrode catheter.6 7 8 9 The purpose of the present study was to determine the feasibility of a novel multisite, noncontact electrode catheter in mapping atrial activation.
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Methods |
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Data-Acquisition System Overview
The data-acquisition system consists of a 9F catheter with a multielectrode array (MEA) mounted on a balloon and a data-analysis workstation.6 16 The electrode array is used to record intracavitary potentials that are "projected" to the endocardial surface by the workstation by use of a boundary-element inverse solution. The system also has the capability to localize a roving catheter in 3-dimensional space within a computerized reconstruction of the cardiac chamber.
Catheter
The 9F multielectrode catheter consists of 64 electrodes
deployed on an inflatable ellipsoidal 7.5-mL balloon. The inflated
dimensions are 1.8x4.6 cm. Once positioned in the cardiac chamber, the
balloon is deployed by injection of a 50-50 mixture of contrast media
and saline. The recording portion of the catheter is shown in
Figure 1
.
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Data-Analysis System
The computerized data-acquisition system (Endocardial Solutions,
St. Paul, Minn) is based on a Silicon Graphics Indigo workstation. It
has 100 analog inputs consisting of 64 inputs from the MEA catheter, 12
surface ECGs and 16 unipolar or bipolar catheter inputs, and 8
user-defined analog-signal inputs. The analog inputs are A to D
converted at 1200 Hz and filtered at 0.1 to 300 Hz. After data
acquisition, reconstructed electrograms were examined while being
accessed from disk storage in a playback mode. The system is able to
compute all 3360 local electrograms in 10% of real time in the
playback mode.
Right atrial geometry was estimated by use of a
contoured-geometry approach10 (Figure 2). In this approach, a standard
electrophysiological catheter through which
a locator signal is emitted is moved rapidly to trace the endocardial
surface of the right atrium. Once the collection of locator points is
complete, the contoured-geometry method uses a convex-hull algorithm.
This effectively ignores points interior to the facets created by the
convex hull. The entire data-acquisition process for right atrial
geometry was performed in <3 minutes. Anatomic reference points were
obtained by user-defined labeling of fluoroscopic catheter
positions.
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Electrical Activity
The potential distribution on the surface of the MEA
electrodes is dependent on the underlying endocardial potentials and on
the distance between the endocardial surface and the MEA electrodes. A
boundary-element inverse solution based on Green's second formula was
used in the present study. Electrical data are displayed in several
ways. Dynamic isopotential maps constructed from the multiple
electrograms are available for display. Digital bipolar electrograms
can be computed from the unipolar electrograms.
Experimental Protocol
Experiments were performed on 12 normal mongrel dogs. The
animals were anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital and
ventilated with 1% to 2% isoflurane delivered in oxygen. The animal
care committee at the Minneapolis VA Medical Center approved the
protocol. Standard electrical catheters with a 2.5-mm interelectrode
distance were introduced via the femoral vein and placed within the
right atrium and the coronary sinus. The MEA mapping catheter
was introduced by the contralateral femoral vein. In the first 9
experiments, 3 quadripolar catheters were placed in the right atrium.
Repeated episodes of atrial flutter and fibrillation were induced, and
correlations between virtual and contact recordings were
performed at 2 to 8 sites within each arrhythmia episode. In
the second set of experiments, 2 decapolar catheters were placed within
the right atrium to allow 20 simultaneous electrograms to
be recorded. All 20 electrode recordings were used for
correlations.
In both groups of experiments, recordings were performed during sinus rhythm, atrial pacing, and induced atrial flutter and fibrillation. To validate the accuracy of electrogram recon-struction from the MEA catheter, a roving catheter was moved from 6 to 10 sites throughout the atrium, including several sites in the mid right atrium. Atrial flutter and fibrillation were in-duced by decremental high-current right atrial pacing. Atrial tachyarrhythmias that were evaluated lasted from 5 seconds to >5 minutes. Arrhythmias terminated spontaneously or were terminated by direct current cardioversion (n=2 experiments). From 10 seconds to 2 minutes of data were acquired during each arrhythmia episode.
Geometry Validation
To validate the accuracy of the locator signal and the
3-dimensional contoured-geometry representation, the locator
signal was used to estimate distances between electrodes on a
multipolar catheter. A multipolar catheter consisting of ring
electrodes separated by 
5.5 mm was positioned at 10 different
sites within the right atrium in each of 3 experiments. We determined
the accuracy of locator measurements by comparing the interpolar
distance measured by an optical micrometer with the
interpolar distance determined by the locator signal by use of
3-dimensional calculations.
Data Analysis
To validate the accuracy of virtual electrograms, a
template-matching algorithm was used.11 12
Analysis was performed on randomly selected 2-second windows.
The algorithm was used to determine a cross-correlation coefficient
indicating the similarity between 2 signals, in this case
represented by a contact unipolar electrogram from a
standard electrophysiology catheter and a virtual electrogram computed
by the data-acquisition system.13 The result is a spectrum
of correlations indexed by the timing offset (in samples) between the 2
electrograms. The point of the maximum correlation determines the
timing error (Figure 3). During sinus
rhythm and atrial flutter, the algorithm was used to estimate a time
delay between the 2 electrograms as well as an unadjusted and adjusted
(for time delay) cross-correlation coefficient. Only unadjusted
correlation coefficients were used for statistical analysis. No
attempt was made to assign individual "cycles" during atrial
fibrillation because of the complexity of recorded electrograms.
The spatial complexity of local electrical activation was determined by
evaluation of the correlation coefficient between contact unipolar
electrograms recorded from sites 2.5 mm apart. Sites with high
correlation coefficients were defined as having a high degree of
organization or low complexity.14 Evaluation of the
accuracy of electrogram reconstruction at specific locations within the
right atrium or at particular distances from the MEA catheter was
performed by linear regression. Reentrant circuits were defined by
activation spanning the entire tachycardia cycle length. If
>75% of the cycle length but <100% (±10 ms) was identified, an
incomplete reentrant circuit was said to be present. Data are
expressed as mean±SD. A P value of <0.05 was taken as
significant. Cross-correlation coefficients were expressed by
R values, whereas R2 values
were used to define linear regression comparisons.
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Results |
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Validation of Locator Signals and Geometric Measurements
A total of 210 interelectrode distances were evaluated. The mean difference between the measured and computed interelectrode distance was 0.09±1.3 mm. The mean absolute value of the difference between computed and actual interelectrode distances was 0.96±0.77. The actual catheter distance from pole 1 to pole 8 was 38.43 mm. The same catheter was used in all experiments. The locator-signal–computed sum of segment lengths for the length of the catheter was 38.44±4.0 mm.
The distance from the balloon center and the vertical distance from the balloon equator did not affect the accuracy of distance measurements. However, only 5 and 6 sites, respectively, were >30 mm from the balloon center or balloon equator. The mean absolute error in location was 0.98±0.71 mm in sinus rhythm and 0.93±0.46 mm in atrial fibrillation. This difference did not approach significance.
Sinus Rhythm
Activation patterns during sinus rhythm demonstrated uniform
impulse spread from a point in the superolateral right atrium to the
remainder of the chamber. The mean correlation coefficient at all sites
between virtual and contact electrograms was 0.80±0.12 at 119 sites
evaluated during sinus rhythm. An example of a corresponding contact
and virtual electrogram during sinus rhythm is shown in Figure 4 (top). The mean difference in
activation times between the virtual and contact electrograms was 1±4
ms. A snapshot of an isopotential map obtained in sinus rhythm near the
end of right atrial activation is shown in Figure 2
. In
11 of 12 experiments, the region of latest activation within the right
atrium was located in the midseptum. Activation in this region
proceeded caudocranially toward the His bundle. Virtual unipolar and
bipolar electrograms recorded from this region showed discrete
potentials similar to those described as A-Sp potential followed by
"slow waves" (Figure 4, bottom). Sites at which either only
slow waves or only rapid deflections between the A and V electrograms
appeared were also seen.
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Atrial Flutter
Episodes of atrial flutter were induced in 11 animals. In 8
of these animals, complete or incomplete circuits within the right
atrium were noted. A total of 50 recordings were
analyzed. The mean atrial flutter cycle length was 138±12 ms.
An isochronal activation map generated from noncontact electrograms
during an episode of induced atrial flutter is shown in Figure 5. At 16 sites identified on the
map, unipolar contact electrograms were recorded. An example of the
correlation between contact and virtual electrograms at 1 of these
sites is shown in Figure 6 (top). Figure 6 (bottom) also shows several virtual electrograms obtained from
the map in Figure 5. The mean correlation coefficient between
contact and virtual electrograms during all episodes of atrial flutter
was 0.85±0.17. The mean difference in activation times between contact
and virtual electrograms was 2±4 ms.
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Atrial Fibrillation
Episodes of atrial fibrillation were induced in 11 animals. The
mean cycle length of atrial fibrillation was 130±12 ms. In some
experiments, multiple simultaneous wave fronts were seen in
the right atrium. In others, a single activation wave front was
present at 1 time. A snapshot from an isopotential map within the
right atrium and the match between virtual and contact electrograms are
shown in Figure 7. Correlation between
virtual and contact electrograms was evaluated at 156 sites. The mean
correlation coefficient between virtual and contact electrograms was
0.81±0.18 during atrial fibrillation.
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Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Electrogram
Reconstruction
There was no significant difference in the accuracy of
electrogram reconstruction among data recorded in sinus rhythm,
atrial flutter, and atrial fibrillation. However, at a distance
>40 mm from the balloon center, the accuracy of electrogram
reproduction decreased (Figure 8). The mean cross-correlation
coefficient was 0.82±0.16 for sites within 40 mm of the balloon
center and 0.72±0.16 (P<0.05) at sites >40 mm from
the balloon center. The better electrogram reconstruction accuracy at
sites close to the balloon was present regardless of the rhythm for
which this relationship was evaluated. Electrogram reconstruction
accuracy was good regardless of the distance between the site of
interest and the balloon equator (Figure 9).
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The spatial complexity of electrical activation was determined by
analysis of cross-correlation coefficients between contact
electrograms recorded from electrodes with a 2.5 mm
center-to-center interelectrode distance. Sites with low
cross-correlation coefficients between adjacent contact electrograms
showed much poorer electrogram reproduction by the noncontact
mapping method than did other sites. This relationship is shown in
Figure 10. When only sites with low
spatial complexity of electrical activation were included
(cross-correlation coefficient of adjacent contact electrograms
>0.70), the accuracy of electrogram reproduction was excellent
(mean correlation coefficient 0.84±0.13). In contrast, when only sites
with high spatial complexity were included, the accuracy of electrogram
reproduction was not as high (mean cross-correlation
coefficient 0.60±0.23; P<0.001 versus low-complexity
sites). To assess the spatial resolution of the inverse solution in
areas of high electrical complexity, virtual electrograms at adjacent
sites were also examined by creation of a color map of
cross-correlation coefficients throughout the atrial endocardium. The
highest cross-correlation coefficients between contact and virtual
electrograms were found at computed sites within 2 to 3 mm of the
contact electrograms.
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Discussion |
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The major finding of the study is that right atrial activation in this model can be accurately reproduced with a noncontact electrode catheter. The catheter is capable of reconstructing electrograms and evaluating activation throughout most of the canine right atrium on a single cycle and appears to have the ability to map rhythms such as atrial fibrillation in which beat-to-beat activity may not be constant. Finally, endocardial activation patterns in this model showing right atrial reentrant activation during atrial flutter and a variety of atrial activation patterns during atrial fibrillation correspond qualitatively to prior studies using single-point endocardial mapping and to multisite epicardial activation patterns.
Noncontact Electrode Mapping
Evaluation of distant endocardial potentials from an
intracavitary electrode represents a specialized case of
solution to the "inverse problem."9 15 The
present report describes the validation of a clinically applicable
in vivo system for evaluation of endocardial potentials and activation
patterns from intracavitary recordings in the right atrium. The
accuracy of electrogram reconstruction was similar to that previously
reported in the human left ventricle16 but not as good as
that seen in the dog left ventricle under carefully controlled
conditions.17 Although the overall system
performance was good, some limitations were noted. Accurate
electrogram reconstruction was obtained only at sites within 4.0 cm of
the balloon center. This could limit the clinical applicability of the
system in patients with large cardiac chambers, or it could require
balloon repositioning to areas of interest. Additional studies
including changes in catheter design or algorithm implementation will
be required to determine whether this limitation can be overcome.
Geometric Modeling
The endocardial surface of the right atrium is a complex
3-dimensional structure that cannot be easily modeled by a simple
3-dimensional shape. To overcome this limitation, a contoured-geometry
approach was used. This model does not detect fine details of atrial
structure, such as the pectinate muscles. However, a
physiologically and anatomically appropriate
3-dimensional model of the right atrium was created, as shown in
Figures 2 and 5. The accuracy of the locator signal in
identifying sites in 3-dimensional space was confirmed in a prior
experimental study17 in which radiofrequency lesions were
delivered to pacing sites at which localization was provided by the
locator signal. In the present study, the locator signal was
accurate to within 10% (over large distances) or 1 mm (over small
distances). Additional work will be required to develop an anatomic
technique that provides better detail of complex 3-dimensional
structures located within the heart.
Activation During Atrial Flutter and Atrial Fibrillation
Few prior studies have carefully examined pacing-induced
atrial flutter in the normal canine heart.18 19 20 Most
episodes of atrial flutter induced in the present study had
characteristics that in many ways are similar to clinical atrial
flutter. Atrial flutter was macroreentrant in nature, tending to
proceed caudally to cranially along the septum and craniocaudally along
the lateral right atrial wall. Although atrial tachycardia
was not evaluated in the present study, the ability of the system
to localize activation during sinus rhythm and other
tachyarrhythmias suggests that it should be clinically
useful in localizing atrial tachycardia.
Evaluation of activation during atrial fibrillation is a complex process, and the present study was not designed to be able to carefully evaluate reentrant activation during atrial fibrillation. However, several observations were made that were consistent with prior experimental results. In some cases, right atrial activation was relatively uniform, although the ECG pattern was consistent with atrial fibrillation. In other cases (corresponding to what has previously been described as type III atrial fibrillation in humans21 ), multiple simultaneous wave fronts and incomplete reentry circuits were seen in the canine right atrium.
Comparison With Other Techniques
Different techniques are available to create a
representation of cardiac activation from electrical
recordings. Prior studies have used either unipolar or bipolar
electrograms to examine activation. The pattern of cardiac activation
has been described with isochronal, isopotential,22
and vector mapping, in which the direction of cardiac activation is
indicated by vector loops created from orthogonal bipolar
electrograms.23 The noncontact mapping system used in the
present study has the ability to create each of these
representations. No "gold standard" was available to
evaluate the isochronal map obtained in vivo because
reconstructions even from the 16 simultaneously
recorded electrodes cannot be performed with 3-dimensional
accuracy. However, if activation times and electrogram morphology
obtained from multiple simultaneous sites are accurate, an
isochronal map generated from such data will be similarly accurate.
The present study was not designed to determine the "ideal"
method for cardiac mapping. It is likely that each method has strengths
and limitations in individual applications.
Limitations
One implementation of a boundary-element inverse solution
was evaluated in the present study. No attempt was made to compare
this technique to other potential inverse-problem solutions. It is
possible that other inverse solutions could provide equivalent or more
accurate information. Although the mapping system has the theoretical
ability to determine conduction velocity, these measurements were not
available at the time the study was performed, and thus a careful
examination of regions of slow conduction during arrhythmias
such as atrial flutter was not possible. The present study was also
not designed to evaluate the mechanism of atrial fibrillation, and only
1 model of short-term, pacing-induced atrial fibrillation was used.
Thus, only a qualitative description of right atrial activation
patterns is included.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported in part by a grant from the Minnesota Medical Foundation, grant HL-40667 from the National Institutes of Health, and a grant from the Fannie Penikof Trust.
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Footnotes |
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Endocardial Solutions, Inc (ESI) is the manufacturer of the mapping system evaluated in this study. Dr Kadish is a member of the Scientific Advisory Board of ESI but does not have an equity or option position in the company. John Hauck, Brian Pederson, and Graydon Beatty are employees of ESI. Dr Gornick has received grant support from ESI.
Received August 31, 1998; revision received November 18, 1998; accepted December 7, 1998.
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T. Paul, B. Windhagen-Mahnert, T. Kriebel, H. Bertram, R. Kaulitz, T. Korte, M. Niehaus, and J. Tebbenjohanns Atrial Reentrant Tachycardia After Surgery for Congenital Heart Disease : Endocardial Mapping and Radiofrequency Catheter Ablation Using a Novel, Noncontact Mapping System Circulation, May 8, 2001; 103(18): 2266 - 2271. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 G. L. Pierpont, S. S. Chugh, J. A. Hauck, and C. C. Gornick Endocardial activation during ventricular fibrillation in normal and failing canine hearts Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, October 1, 2000; 279(4): H1737 - H1747. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. R. Betts, P. R. Roberts, S. A. Allen, A. P. Salmon, B. R. Keeton, M. P. Haw, and J. M. Morgan Electrophysiological Mapping and Ablation of Intra-Atrial Reentry Tachycardia After Fontan Surgery With the Use of a Noncontact Mapping System Circulation, July 25, 2000; 102(4): 419 - 425. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 R.J Schilling, A.H Kadish, N.S Peters, J Goldberger, and D.W. Davies Endocardial mapping of atrial fibrillation in the human right atrium using a non-contact catheter Eur. Heart J., April 1, 2000; 21(7): 550 - 564. [Abstract] [PDF]
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S. A. Strickberger, B. P. Knight, G. F. Michaud, F. Pelosi, and F. Morady Mapping and ablation of ventricular tachycardia guided by virtual electrograms using a noncontact, computerized mapping system J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., February 1, 2000; 35(2): 414 - 421. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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