(Circulation. 1999;99:2694-2701.)
© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Basic Science Reports |
Activation of Cardiac Aldosterone Production in Rat Myocardial Infarction
Effect of Angiotensin II Receptor Blockade and Role in Cardiac Fibrosis
From INSERM U127, IFR Circulation, Université D. Diderot, and Service de Biochimie, CHU Pitié-Salpétrière (B.A.-F., A.C.), Paris, France.
Correspondence to Claude Delcayre, U127-INSERM, Hôpital Lariboisière, 41 Boulevard de la Chapelle, 75475 Paris Cedex 10, France. E-mail delcayre{at}infobiogen.fr
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Abstract |
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Background—This study analyzed the regulation and the role of the cardiac steroidogenic system in myocardial infarction (MI).
Methods and Results—Seven days after MI, rats were randomized to untreated infarcted group or spironolactone- (20 and 80 mg · kg-1 · d-1), losartan- (8 mg · kg-1 · d-1), spironolactone plus losartan–, and L-NAME– (5 mg · kg-1 · d-1) treated infarcted groups for 25 days. Sham-operated rats served as controls. In the noninfarcted myocardium of the left ventricle (LV), MI raised aldosterone synthase mRNA (the terminal enzyme of aldosterone synthesis) by 2.0-fold and the aldosterone level by 3.7-fold. Conversely, MI decreased 11ß-hydroxylase mRNA (the terminal enzyme of corticosterone synthesis) by 2.4-fold and the corticosterone level by 1.9-fold. MI also induced a 1.9-fold increase in cardiac angiotensin II level. Such cardiac regulations were completely prevented by treatment of the infarcted heart with losartan. The MI-induced collagen deposition in noninfarcted LV myocardium was prevented by 1.6-fold by both low and high doses of spironolactone and by 2.5-fold by losartan. In addition, norepinephrine level was unchanged in infarcted heart but was attenuated by both losartan and spironolactone treatments.
Conclusions—MI is associated with tissue-specific activation of myocardial aldosterone synthesis. This increase is mediated primarily by cardiac angiotensin II via AT1-subtype receptor and may be involved in post-MI ventricular fibrosis and in control of tissue norepinephrine concentration.
Key Words: myocardial infarction • aldosterone • angiotensin • collagen
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Introduction |
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In addition to the classic adrenal biosynthetic pathway, steroid hormone production has been evidenced in extra-adrenal tissues, namely brain1 and vessels.2 The existence of a steroidogenic system has also been suggested in cardiac tissue.3 Moreover, the gene expression of terminal enzymes of corticosterone and aldosterone synthesis, 11ß-hydroxylase (11ß-OHase) and aldosterone synthase (aldo-synthase), respectively, and production of both steroids have recently been demonstrated within rat heart,4 confirming the potential for steroid metabolism in cardiac tissue.
Mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, which confers mineralocorticoid selectivity to aldosterone target tissues, have been detected in heart.5 6 Aldosterone excess triggers cardiac fibrosis7 8 and electrolyte imbalance.9 Aldosterone also regulates myocardial norepinephrine uptake.10 Taken together, these reports emphasize the potential role of cardiac aldosterone in the regulation of tissue function.
A selective activation of cardiac angiotensin II (Ang II)–generating pathway has been reported in the rat model of chronic myocardial infarction (MI).11 12 13 ACE inhibitors and Ang II AT1-subtype receptor antagonists reduce the post-MI cardiac remodeling.11 14 15 Because the plasma renin-angiotensin system is not consistently activated after MI,11 15 part of the beneficial effects of ACE inhibitors and AT1-subtype receptor blockade have been attributed to inhibition of cardiac Ang II–related action.
We hypothesized that the tissue aldosterone system may be also activated in MI and may contribute to the pathophysiology of this disease state. Thus, the present study aimed to (1) analyze the regulation of this cardiac steroidogenic system in rat MI; (2) determine whether cardiac Ang II, atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), and nitric oxide (NO), ie, the major stimuli of adrenal aldosterone biosynthesis,16 17 18 contribute to such regulations; and (3) assess the role of cardiac aldosterone in the regulation of postinfarction ventricular fibrosis and myocardial norepinephrine level.
This study provides the first evidence that MI is associated with an increase in myocardial aldosterone production, which may be involved in post-MI ventricular fibrosis and in control of tissue norepinephrine concentration.
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Methods |
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Animals
The study, which was conducted in accordance with both institutional guidelines and those formulated by the European Community for experimental animal use (L358-86/609/EEC), used 3-month-old male Wistar rats (Iffa Credo, Lyon, France). Left ventricular (LV) infarction was produced by ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery as previously described.19 Sham-operated animals were treated similarly, except that the ligature around the coronary artery was not tied. Seven days after coronary ligation, animals were randomly divided into 6 groups (n=6 per group), each group receiving one of the following treatments: (1) low dose of spironolactone (aldosterone receptor blockade, 20 mg · kg-1 · d-1 in drinking water, Sigma), (2) high dose of spironolactone (80 mg · kg-1 · d-1), (3) losartan (Ang II receptor blockade, 8 mg · kg-1 · d-1 in drinking water, Merck Industries), (4) spironolactone and losartan (20 and 8 mg · kg-1 · d-1, respectively, in drinking water), (5) NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, NO synthase inhibitor, 5 mg · kg-1 · d-1 in drinking water), and (6) untreated MI. Noninfarcted and nontreated sham-operated animals served as a control group.
Experimental Protocol
After 25 days of treatment, rats were anesthetized by
intraperitoneal injection of ketamine (100
mg/kg), xylazine (10 mg/kg), and atropine (0.05 mg/kg). Functional
parameters were then measured in closed-chest
anesthetized rats. An ultraminiature catheter pressure
transducer, inserted into the LV, was attached to a transducer control
unit (model TC50, Millar instruments, Inc) connected to the data
acquisition unit (MP100, Biopac Systems, Inc). Arterial and
LV systolic pressures and the first derivatives for the maximal
rate of LV pressure development (+LV dP/dt) and maximal rate of
relaxation (-LV dP/dt) were then measured. At the end of the
recording period, blood was collected for measurements of
hormone concentration and renin activity. Subsequently, hearts were
perfused through the aorta with an ice-cold NaCl 0.9% buffer to wash
out plasma components. The pulmonary artery and vena cava were
opened to drain the blood out of the heart and to avoid volume
overload. After cessation of beating, hearts were excised and
immediately dropped into an ice-cold NaCl 0.9% buffer. Transverse
sections of heart were then embedded in mounting medium and frozen in
liquid nitrogen–cooled isopentane for later determination of infarct
size and interstitial fibrosis. The infarct scar, including
the border zone, was then removed from the remaining heart. In
sham-operated animals, corresponding parts of the heart were discarded.
The LV, including the septum, was separated from the right ventricle in
the remaining heart and stored, as were the adrenal glands, at -70°C
until use. All the experiments were then performed on the noninfarcted
LV myocardium of each infarcted heart and on the
corresponding part of the LV in sham-operated rats.
Total RNA Extraction
Total RNA was extracted from hearts and adrenal glands according
to the Trizol reagent protocol (Life Technologies). The yields of total
RNA extracted were similar in sham-operated rats and MI and in treated
and untreated MI.
Quantification of 11ß-OHase and Aldo-Synthase mRNAs by
RT-PCR
Quantitative RT-PCR Protocol
Reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was
performed as previously described.4 Quantifications were
done with a synthetic cRNA as a standard corresponding to the
11ß-OHase PCR product ligated with a 100-bp insert
(PvuI/ScaI fragment of pBluescript II SK
phagemid). After RT-PCR, we obtained a PCR product of 446 bp
(Figure 1A
).
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Differentiation of 11ß-OHase and Aldo-Synthase PCR
Products
PCR products were size-differentiated with XhoI,
which hydrolyzed the aldo-synthase PCR product into 2 fragments of
177 and 169 bp. XhoI did not affect the PCR products of
11ß-OHase or internal standard as previously
described.4
PCR products were separated on a 5% polyacrylamide gel, and radioactive signals were analyzed with a computer-based imaging system (Bas 1000, Fuji Medical Systems).
Steroids, Ang II, and Norepinephrine Assay
Cardiac levels of steroids, Ang II, and unconjugated
norepinephrine were assessed as previously
described.4 20 21 The protein concentration of cardiac
homogenate was determined according to the method of
Bradford,22 with BSA used as standard.
Quantification of MR and Glucocorticoid Receptor mRNAs by
Ribonuclease Protection Assay
Specific antibodies against rat MR are not available, and
binding studies are complicated by the binding of
aldosterone and glucocorticoid to heterologous
receptors.23 As a consequence, we have chosen to use the
MR and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) mRNA levels as an indirect measure
of the MR and GR regulation. Ribonuclease protection assay was
performed as previously described.23 Protected
products were separated on a 5% polyacrylamide-urea gel,
and radioactive signals were analyzed with the Bas 1000. The
values obtained were normalized by those obtained for GAPDH mRNA.
ANF Gene Expression
Northern blot analysis of ANF was performed with 10-µg
samples of RNA as previously described.8 The radioactive
signals were analyzed with the Bas 1000.
Determination of Infarct Size and Collagen Morphometry
Transverse myocardial sections (5 µm thick) were stained
with collagen-specific Sirius red stain (0.5% in saturated picric
acid). Each field was digitized on a Macintosh Performa 5320 by a
gray-level camera (Hamamatsu) mounted on a light microscope (Leica).
Infarct size was determined by planimetric measurement with digital
image analysis software (Optilab, Graftek). To calculate
infarct size, the ratio of scar length to total length of each slice
was measured and expressed as a percentage, as previously
described.15 Collagen was then quantified at x100
magnification with Optilab software. Perivascular areas were not
included in this analysis.14
Statistical Analysis
Results are expressed as mean±SD. One-way ANOVA was used to
compare each parameter in the 6 experimental groups. Post
hoc Student's t test comparisons were then performed to
identify which group differences accounted for the significant overall
ANOVA. A value of P<0.05 was considered significant.
Significance was adjusted for the number of comparisons by Bonferroni
correction. Comparisons were then considered not significant unless the
corresponding probability value was <0.004.
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Results |
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Infarct Size, Cardiac Hypertrophy, and Physiological Data
None of the animals died during the post-MI 25-day treatments. Mean infarct size and body weight did not differ significantly between the experimental groups (Table 1
).
MI induced a slight cardiac hypertrophy, as demonstrated by
the increase in ratio of heart weight to body weight by 1.2-fold. Only
treatments with losartan prevented such cardiac
hypertrophy. Aortic systolic and
diastolic pressures, LV systolic pressure, +LV
dP/dt, -LV dP/dt, and heart rate were unchanged in infarcted animals,
in spironolactone 20 mg · kg-1 ·
d-1– and in losartan-treated infarcted
rats, as previously described.19 In contrast, treatments
with spironolactone 80 mg · kg-1 ·
d-1 and L-NAME affected aortic systolic
and diastolic pressures.
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Cardiac Steroidogenic System in MI
Cardiac Gene Expression
In the noninfarcted area of the LV, MI induced a 2.0-fold increase
in aldo-synthase mRNA level and a 2.4-fold decrease in 11ß-OHase mRNA
level (Figure 1
). Losartan, but not spironolactone,
completely prevented such changes. L-NAME also induced an 1.5-fold
decrease in aldo-synthase gene expression, but without reaching
statistical significance.
In the infarcted area of the LV, aldo-synthase gene expression was undetectable, whereas 11ß-OHase (2017±214 mol/µg of total RNA) was significantly downregulated compared with noninfarcted LV myocardium (9867±1147 mol/µg total RNA, P<0.001).
Cardiac Steroid Production
In noninfarcted LV myocardium, MI enhanced
aldosterone production by 3.7-fold (Figure 2A). In contrast, corticosterone level
fell by 1.9-fold (Figure 2B). Only treatments with
losartan prevented these regulations. As for aldo-synthase mRNA
levels, the L-NAME–induced 1.4-fold decrease in
aldosterone levels did not reach statistical significance.
However, L-NAME treatment raised corticosterone level significantly, by
2- and 4-fold, compared with sham-operated and untreated MI rats,
respectively. In addition, the level of deoxycorticosterone (DOC, the
precursor of both aldosterone and corticosterone) was
unchanged in the experimental groups (Figure 2C).
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In the infarcted area of the LV, MI resulted in an almost complete suppression of DOC (<50±20 pg/mg of protein), corticosterone (500±60 pg/mg of protein), and aldosterone (<10±4 pg/mg of protein) levels compared with the noninfarcted part of the LV (P<0.001).
Cardiac MR and GR mRNA Levels
MR and GR gene expressions were unaffected in untreated MI
(123±30% and 109±21%), low-dose spironolactone– (113±26% and
106±23%), high-dose spironolactone– (96±21% and 104±11%),
losartan- (101±16% and 96±17%), losartan and
spironolactone– (122±13% and 111±7%), and L-NAME– (129±14% and
104±19%) treated infarcted rats, respectively, compared with 100% in
sham-operated animals (data not shown).
Adrenal Steroidogenic System in MI
Adrenal Gene Expression
As shown in Figure 3, MI did not
change adrenal aldo-synthase gene expression. Only treatments of
infarcted rats with high doses of spironolactone and L-NAME affected
aldo-synthase mRNA levels. No significant differences in 11ß-OHase
gene expression were evidenced among experimental groups.
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Adrenal Steroid Production
Similarly, the plasma level of aldosterone was
unchanged by MI but raised in infarcted rats treated with the high dose
of spironolactone and decreased in those treated with L-NAME. Treatment
with L-NAME was also associated with a 1.6-fold rise in corticosterone
levels. Plasma DOC concentration was unaffected in experimental groups
(Table 2).
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Angiotensin II Level
Cardiac Ang II Level
In noninfarcted LV myocardium, MI was associated with
a 1.9-fold increase in cardiac Ang II content. Only treatments with
losartan prevented the MI-induced rise in tissue Ang II level
(Figure 4A).
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In the infarcted area of the LV, the same patterns of regulation were
evidenced (Figure 4B). However, cardiac Ang II levels were
1.8-fold higher in the infarcted area than in noninfarcted LV
myocardium of infarcted heart (P<0.01).
Plasma Ang II Level
In contrast to cardiac level, plasma Ang II and renin levels were
not different between the sham-operated, untreated infarcted, low-dose
spironolactone–treated, and L-NAME–treated infarcted rat groups
(Table 2). Conversely, plasma Ang II and renin activity levels
were increased in losartan-, losartan plus
spironolactone–, and high-dose spironolactone–treated infarcted rats,
in agreement with previous studies.24 25
ANF Gene Expression in Noninfarcted LV Myocardium
As shown in Figure 5, ANF mRNA was
induced in the noninfarcted area of the LV of infarcted rat hearts, as
previously described.11 Moreover, treatment of infarcted
rats with the high dose of spironolactone decreased, whereas treatment
with L-NAME increased, LV ANF gene expression.
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Interstitial Fibrosis in Noninfarcted LV
Myocardium
Sirius red staining revealed a 2.8-fold increase in
myocardial fibrosis in the noninfarcted part of the LV of infarcted
hearts compared with sham-operated animals (Figure 6A and 6B). Interestingly, collagen
accumulation in infarcted heart was 1.6-fold attenuated by chronic
aldosterone receptor blockade, whatever the dose of
spironolactone used. Interstitial fibrosis was prevented a
further 2.5- and 2.4-fold by chronic AT1 receptor
blockade alone or associated with a low dose of spironolactone,
respectively.
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Norepinephrine Level in Noninfarcted LV
Myocardium
Cardiac norepinephrine level was unaffected by
MI and by treatment of infarcted hearts with L-NAME. In contrast, both
losartan and spironolactone (low and high doses) treatments
decreased cardiac norepinephrine concentration (Figure 7).
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Discussion |
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The major findings of this study are the following: i) aldo-synthase mRNA and aldosterone levels were raised whereas that of 11ß-OHase and corticosterone were decreased in the noninfarcted area of LV; ii) MI is also associated with a rise in cardiac Ang II level; iii) these regulations were prevented by AT1-subtype receptor blockade using losartan, but not by MR antagonist spironolactone; iv) in contrast, adrenal aldo-synthase and 11ß-OHase gene expressions and plasma steroid levels were unaffected by MI and v) both spironolactone and losartan prevented myocardial fibrosis associated with MI and attenuated cardiac norepinephrine level.
Activation of Cardiac Steroidogenic Pathway
In this study, we evidence a tissue-specific upregulation of
aldosterone-generating pathway in noninfarcted LV
myocardium. In contrast, corticosterone production
was decreased. Because both steroids are synthesized from a common
precursor DOC, this suggests that MI modified the cardiac steroids
biosynthetic pathway by increasing aldosterone synthesis at
the expense of corticosterone production.
Accumulating evidences indicate that myocardial Ang II–generating pathway is also activated in MI. Indeed, increased cardiac expression of angiotensinogen, ACE and AT1 receptor proteins, ACE activity and Ang II content have been previously described in infarcted hearts12 13 15 25 26 27 . We confirm and extend these previous studies because we evidence that cardiac Ang II level was enhanced in the noninfarcted LV myocardium. Ang II is an important regulator of aldosterone biosynthesis and secretion in adrenal cortex as in heart.4 16 Ang II also modulates the corticosterone-generating pathway. However, the effect of Ang II on 11ß-OHase mRNA and corticosterone levels is still controversial because Ang II has been shown to decrease,28 increase16 or not change29 11ß-OHase gene expression in adrenals. Nevertheless, in our study all changes associated with MI were prevented by Ang II AT1-subtype receptor blockade independently of variations in hemodynamic parameters. Because plasma renin-angiotensin system is not activated in MI11 15 and cardiac Ang II level is enhanced, our results support the conclusion that the MI-induced increase in tissue Ang II level triggers the rise in cardiac aldosterone production and the decrease in cardiac corticosterone synthesis.
Such a role of tissue Ang II on local aldosterone synthesis has been previously demonstrated in adrenals.30 Conversely, despite the marked increase in cardiac Ang II, the cardiac steroidogenic pathway was completely attenuated in the infarcted area. Because both aldo-synthase and 11ß-OHase are mitochondrial enzymes, it is likely that the lack of oxygen and the structural mitochondrial damage in such area blocked these enzymatic reactions.
NO is required for the action of both Ang II and ACTH on aldosterone production in isolated rat adrenal capsular tissue.17 In the same way, using a NO synthase inhibitor, we evidenced that NO may participate to the MI-induced regulation of cardiac aldosterone production. In contrast, ANF was not involved in these regulations because changes in cardiac aldosterone production were independent on cardiac ANF mRNA level. Nevertheless, ANF has a known inhibitory effect on adrenal aldosterone secretion.18 Therefore, the changes in ANF gene expression evidenced in both high dose of spironolactone and L-NAME treated infarcted hearts may also participate to cardiac aldosterone level variations.
Role of Cardiac Aldosterone
Cardiac Fibrosis
Chronic MR blockade is effective in preventing myocardial
fibrosis of noninfarcted area of LV, independently of blood pressure
changes. Because plasma aldosterone level is unchanged and
cardiac aldosterone production increased in MI, we
may postulate that spironolactone effect is related to blockade of
cardiac MR and consequently to blockade of cardiac
aldosterone action. Several studies evidence a stimulatory
effect of aldosterone on cardiac collagen
synthesis7 8 . Although the mechanism of
aldosterone-induced cardiac fibrosis remains
unclear,31 these reports support the hypothesis that the
increase in myocardial aldosterone level may be involved in
post-MI ventricular fibrosis. Both doses of spironolactone
attenuate cardiac fibrosis to the same extent. It is then likely that
the enhanced concentration of spironolactone may be counterbalanced by
the increase in both cardiac and plasma aldosterone levels
associated with such treatment. Spironolactone, whatever the dose, is
less effective than losartan in attenuating collagen
accumulation after MI. Indeed, chronic
AT1-receptor blockade totally prevents cardiac
hypertrophy and fibrosis in noninfarcted LV
myocardium as previously described.14 We also
demonstrate that the beneficial effect of losartan on cardiac
remodeling is related to both AT1-subtype
receptor blockade and tissue Ang II levels reduction, in agreement with
previous studies.24 25 In contrast, spironolactone
attenuates cardiac fibrosis independently of changes in myocardial Ang
II content. The antifibrotic effect of spironolactone is therefore
related to blockade of aldosterone action and not to
changes in tissue Ang II levels.
Cardiac Norepinephrine Level
This study also evidence that cardiac
aldosterone regulates cardiac norepinephrine
level. The presumed mechanism of such an effect involves the reduction
by aldosterone of norepinephrine
uptake.10 Therefore, blockade of aldosterone
action using spironolactone increases norepinephrine uptake
contributing then to the decrease in cardiac norepinephrine
concentration. Indeed, norepinephrine is rapidly
inactivated and metabolized on uptake by cardiac
cells.10 Unexpectedly, despite the increase in both
cardiac Ang II and aldosterone levels, cardiac
norepinephrine concentration was unchanged in untreated MI.
Such lack of variation in norepinephrine level may be
related to structural changes and to loss of neuronal activity in
infarcted myocardium.10 Nevertheless, the
aldosterone-induced regulation of cardiac
norepinephrine levels may contribute to the
norepinephrine related arrhythmogenic effects. In this
view, spironolactone decreased ventricular
arrhythmias in patients with heart failure.10
In conclusion, we provide the first evidence that MI is associated with tissue-specific activation of cardiac aldosterone-generating pathway. Such increase in myocardial aldosterone level is mediated by cardiac Ang II via AT1-subtype receptor and may be involved in post-MI ventricular fibrosis and in control of tissue norepinephrine level.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by grants from INSERM and CNRS. Silvestre J.S. is the recipient of a fellowship from the Ministère de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur. The authors thank Dr. L. Rappaport, Dr. J.L. Samuel for helpful discussion, Dr. J.M. Launay for norepinephrine assay and E. Tatara for animal handling.
Received December 2, 1998; revision received February 8, 1999; accepted February 16, 1999.
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M. Cicoira, L. Zanolla, A. Rossi, G. Golia, L. Franceschini, G. Brighetti, P. Marino, and P. Zardini Long-term, dose-dependent effects of spironolactone on left ventricular function and exercise tolerance in patients with chronic heart failure J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., July 17, 2002; 40(2): 304 - 310. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. E. Sheppard and D. J. Autelitano 11{beta}-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase 1 Transforms 11-Dehydrocorticosterone into Transcriptionally Active Glucocorticoid in Neonatal Rat Heart Endocrinology, January 1, 2002; 143(1): 198 - 204. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Katoh, Y. Kurosawa, K. Tanaka, A. Watanabe, H. Doi, and H. Narita Fluvastatin inhibits O2- and ICAM-1 levels in a rat model with aortic remodeling induced by pressure overload Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, August 1, 2001; 281(2): H655 - H660. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Hayashi, T. Tsutamoto, A. Wada, K. Maeda, N. Mabuchi, T. Tsutsui, H. Horie, M. Ohnishi, and M. Kinoshita Intravenous atrial natriuretic peptide prevents left ventricular remodeling in patients with first anterior acute myocardial infarction J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., June 1, 2001; 37(7): 1820 - 1826. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Kusumoto, J. V. Haist, and M. Karmazyn Na+/H+ exchange inhibition reduces hypertrophy and heart failure after myocardial infarction in rats Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, February 1, 2001; 280(2): H738 - H745. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Bauersachs, D. Fraccarollo, G. Ertl, N. Gretz, M. Wehling, and M. Christ Striking Increase of Natriuresis by Low-Dose Spironolactone in Congestive Heart Failure Only in Combination With ACE Inhibition : Mechanistic Evidence to Support RALES Circulation, November 7, 2000; 102(19): 2325 - 2328. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. Takeda, T. Yoneda, M. Demura, I. Miyamori, and H. Mabuchi Cardiac Aldosterone Production in Genetically Hypertensive Rats Hypertension, October 1, 2000; 36(4): 495 - 500. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. V. Cohen, X.-M. Yang, T. Neumann, G. Heusch, and J. M. Downey Favorable Remodeling Enhances Recovery of Regional Myocardial Function in the Weeks After Infarction in Ischemically Preconditioned Hearts Circulation, August 1, 2000; 102(5): 579 - 583. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. M. Kayes-Wandover and P. C. White Steroidogenic Enzyme Gene Expression in the Human Heart J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., July 1, 2000; 85(7): 2519 - 2525. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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M. G. St. J. Sutton and N. Sharpe Left Ventricular Remodeling After Myocardial Infarction : Pathophysiology and Therapy Circulation, June 27, 2000; 101(25): 2981 - 2988. [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Mandinov, F. R. Eberli, C. Seiler, and O. M. Hess Diastolic heart failure Cardiovasc Res, March 1, 2000; 45(4): 813 - 825. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Yoshida and M. Karmazyn Na+/H+ exchange inhibition attenuates hypertrophy and heart failure in 1-wk postinfarction rat myocardium Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, January 1, 2000; 278(1): H300 - H304. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J.-P. Benitah and G. Vassort Aldosterone Upregulates Ca2+ Current in Adult Rat Cardiomyocytes Circ. Res., December 3, 1999; 85(12): 1139 - 1145. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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