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(Circulation. 1999;99:1222-1229.)
© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Basic Science Reports |
Iron-Deficient Diet Reduces Atherosclerotic Lesions in ApoE-Deficient Mice
From the Division of Cardiovascular Research, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica (T.-S.L., C.-C.P., L.-Y.C.), and the Lipid Metabolism Laboratory, Department of Medical Research and Education, Veterans General Hospital (M.-S.S.), Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
Correspondence to Lee-Young Chau, PhD, Division of Cardiovascular Research, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan, ROC. E-mail lyc{at}mail.ibms.sinica.edu.tw
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Background—Iron deposition is evident in human atherosclerotic lesions, suggesting that iron may play a role in the development of atherosclerosis. To test this idea, the correlation between the extent of iron deposition and the severity of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E (apoE)-deficient mice was investigated. Furthermore, the effect of a low-iron diet on the progression of atherosclerotic lesions in these animals was evaluated.
Methods and Results—Iron deposition in tissues of apoE-deficient mice was examined by Perls' staining method. The results clearly demonstrated that iron deposits are present in atherosclerotic lesions and tissue sections of heart and liver in an age-dependent manner. When the young mice received a low-iron diet for 3 months, the hematocrit, serum iron, hemoglobin, and cholesterol concentrations were not significantly altered compared with those of littermates placed on a chow diet. However, the serum ferritin level of animals in the iron-restricted group was 27% to 30% lower than that of the control group in either sex. Furthermore, the lipoproteins isolated from the iron-restricted group exhibited greater resistance to copper-induced oxidation. Histological examination revealed that atherosclerotic lesions developed in mice fed a low-iron diet were significantly smaller than those found in control littermates. Likewise, the iron deposition as well as tissue iron content was much less in aortic tissues of the iron-restricted animals. Circulating autoantibodies to oxidized LDL and immunostains for epitopes of malondialdehyde-modified LDL detected on lesions were also significantly lower in mice fed a low-iron diet.
Conclusions—Iron deposition is closely associated with the progression of atherosclerosis in apoE-deficient mice. Restriction in dietary iron intake leads to significant inhibition of lesion formation in these animals. These results suggest that the beneficial effect of a low-iron diet may be mediated, at least in part, by the reduction of iron deposition as well as LDL oxidation in vascular lesions.
Key Words: atherosclerosis • iron • lipoproteins • oxygen
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Iron is an essential metal involved in a wide spectrum of physiological functions in the body, such as oxygen transport and enzymatic reactions. Nevertheless, excess iron can be dangerous because it promotes the generation of free radicals, which subsequently lead to tissue damage. The association between body iron status and the risk of cardiovascular disease was first postulated by Sullivan1 in the early 1980s. Subsequently, experiments with animal models have supported the role of iron in myocardial reperfusion injury.2 3 4 5 6 7 Furthermore, evidence has accumulated to suggest the role of iron in promoting the oxidation of LDL,8 9 10 which is one of the early events occurring within the subendothelial space of arteries prone to the formation of atherosclerotic plaques.11 Nevertheless, epidemiological studies conducted by a number of investigators to establish a link between body iron stores and cardiovascular disease in human populations have yielded inconclusive results.12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Therefore, whether iron is a risk factor for atherosclerosis and ischemic heart disease remains to be clarified.
A recent study from our laboratory demonstrated that ferritin, the iron storage protein, is highly expressed in human atherosclerotic lesions.24 Perls' iron staining further revealed the colocalization of ferritin and iron deposition in advanced lesions, which provides the pathological evidence to support the implication of iron in the development of vascular disease. In an attempt to further characterize the role of iron in atherosclerosis, in the present study, apolipoprotein E (apoE)-deficient mice, which have been shown to spontaneously develop atherosclerosis with features similar to those seen in humans,25 26 were used as the animal model to assess the association between iron deposition and the progression of the disease. Additional experiments were designed to treat the apoE-deficient mice with a low-iron diet for 3 months, and the effect on lesion formation was further examined. The results clearly show that restriction of dietary iron significantly attenuates the progression of atherosclerotic lesions in these animals.
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Methods |
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Animals
Homozygous apoE-deficient mice of C57BL/6 background were purchased from the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, Me), bred, and maintained under conventional housing conditions in our animal facility. C57BL/6 mice were from the National Animal Center of Taiwan. For dietary experiments, apoE-deficient mice 3 months old were divided into 2 groups and matched for sex, body weight, and plasma cholesterol. One group received a regular AIN-76 semipurified diet (ICN) supplemented with 34 to 36 mg iron/kg in the form of ferric citrate, and the other group was fed a low-iron diet (AIN-76 without iron supplementation, ICN). Our iron determination showed that the AIN-76 regular diet contained 50 mg iron/kg, and the low-iron diet contained 11.5 mg iron/kg. Both groups were housed in plastic cages with stainless steel grid tops. Food and distilled water were given ad libitum. The average amount of diet eaten by each mouse was
2.5 g/d in both groups. The handling of animals was in
accordance with institutional guidelines.
Quantification of Aortic Atherosclerosis
After 3 months of dietary intervention, animals were
killed by exsanguination under carbon dioxide anesthesia. The
thorax and abdomen were opened, and blood samples were collected from
the vena cava. After vascular perfusion with ice-cold PBS, the heart
with the attached aorta and other organs were removed, fixed in 4%
paraformaldehyde, embedded in paraffin, and serially
sectioned at 5 µm for histological staining or
other experiments as described in the following sections. For the
quantification of the atherosclerotic lesions of apoE-deficient mice,
45 serial sections from the aortic sinus or arch of each mouse were
collected. A total of 10 to 12 sections sampled from every 4
consecutive sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and
photomicrographs were taken. The cross-sectional area of a given
photomicrograph was analyzed by a computer imaging graphic
software (NIH Image 1.5). The lesion size of a particular location was
then calculated from the average of the area quantified from the
10 to 12 sections.
Determination of Serum Cholesterol, Iron, Hemoglobin,
Ferritin, and Alkaline Phosphatase
The serum level of total cholesterol was determined
by an enzymatic method using an assay kit (Sigma Chemical Co). Serum
iron and total iron binding capacity were determined by use of
Ferrozine as chromogen. Serum total hemoglobin was measured with
Drabkin's reagent (Sigma). Serum ferritin was measured with an
immunoassay kit (Boehringer Mannheim), in which the polyclonal
anti–human ferritin antibody exhibited high cross-reactivity to mouse
liver ferritin. Alkaline phosphatase activity was determined with
p-nitrophenyl phosphate as substrate.
Determination of Tissue Iron Concentration and Iron
Histochemistry
Tissue samples were dried overnight at 106°C and weighed.
Samples were then solubilized in 6 mol/L HNO3 by
heating at 100°C to release protein-associated iron. The iron was
reduced by ascorbic acid and then quantified after being complexed with
Ferrozine.27 Iron deposits on tissue sections were
examined by Perls' Prussian blue reaction with 3,3'-diaminobenzidine
(DAB) intensification as described previously.24
Susceptibility of Lipoproteins to Oxidation
Plasma samples of 3 mice were pooled and subjected to
density-gradient ultracentrifugation. The lipoprotein
fraction collected from the density range of 1.019 to 1.063 was
dialyzed extensively against PBS at 4°C, and the final concentration
was adjusted to 100 µg/mL before assay. In vitro lipoprotein
oxidation was conducted at room temperature by addition of
CuSO4 to a final concentration of 10
µmol/L. Absorption at 234 nm was monitored continuously as an index
of conjugated diene formation.28 The lag phase was defined
as the intercept of the tangent drawn to the steepest segment of the
propagation phase to the horizontal axis.
Measurement of Anti–Oxidized LDL Antibodies
Human LDL was isolated as described
previously.24 Oxidized LDL was prepared by incubating LDL
(1 mg/mL) with 5 µmol/L CuCl2 in PBS
overnight at 37°C. Before each assay, microtiter plates were freshly
coated with native LDL or oxidized LDL at a concentration of 5 µg/mL
in PBS overnight at 4°C, followed by blocking with 1% BSA for 2
hours at room temperature. Diluted sera (1:40) from animals were
incubated for 2 hours at room temperature in duplicate wells. After 3
washes with PBS containing 0.1% Tween-20, goat anti-mouse IgM
conjugated with alkaline phosphatase (Sigma) (1:1000 dilution) was
added to each well, and incubation continued for 2 hours at room
temperature. Plates were washed again, and the alkaline phosphatase
activity was determined with p-nitrophenyl phosphate as
substrate and read at 405 nm. The titer of anti–oxidized LDL antibody
was defined as the difference between the optical density readings
obtained from the binding to oxidized LDL and to native LDL.
Immunohistochemistry
The antisera against malondialdehyde (MDA)-modified LDL
were generated by immunization of rabbits with homologous MDA-modified
LDL.29 30 Tissue sections were pretreated with 3%
H2O2 in methanol for 10
minutes at room temperature to exhaust endogenous
peroxidase activities. After incubation in PBS containing 1% BSA and
1% goat serum at room temperature for 30 minutes, sections were
treated with rabbit anti–MDA-modified LDL antiserum (1:50 dilution)
for another 30 minutes followed by three 5-minute washes in PBS.
Sections were then incubated with horseradish peroxidase–conjugated
goat anti-rabbit IgG antibody (Gibco BRL) for 30 minutes at room
temperature. After washing, color was developed with 0.1% DAB. As
negative control, the tissue section was incubated with preimmunized
rabbit serum.
Statistical Analysis
Data were expressed as mean±SD. Group data were
analyzed by unpaired Student's t test. A value of
P<0.05 was considered statistically significant.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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To examine whether the iron deposit was present in the arterial lesions of various stages from the apoE-deficient mice, Perls' staining was performed. As illustrated in Figure 1A
, there was virtually no
positive staining in early lesions taken from a 3-month-old mouse.
However, when an intermediate lesion taken from a 5-month-old animal
was examined, the iron stain clearly appeared in the
endothelium (Figure 1B). Increased iron deposits
were detected in advanced lesions from a 6-month-old mouse in which the
staining was present in intima enriched in foam cells as well as in
smooth muscle cells of the media layer (Figure 1C). Some
extracellular iron stains were also visible in the same section. It was
of interest to find that iron deposits were also evident in sections of
heart and liver of older mice (Figure 1G and 1K). In comparison,
no positive iron stain could be detected in tissue sections of the
C57BL/6 control mice at 6 months old (Figure 1D, 1H, and 1L).
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To evaluate the effect of dietary iron intake on the progression
of atherosclerosis, the young apoE-deficient mice (3
months) were fed a low-iron diet for 3 months, and the severity of the
atherosclerotic lesion and iron deposition was assessed and compared
with that from control mice fed a regular chow diet. As shown in Table 1, at the time of death, the body weight
of the mice from the iron-restricted group was comparable to that of
the control mice. Likewise, the hematocrit level, serum iron,
hemoglobin, and cholesterol concentrations were not
significantly changed in mice of either sex treated with the low-iron
diet (Table 1). However, it was found that the level of serum
ferritin, an indicator of body iron stores, in control animals was 27%
to 30% higher than that of animals placed on a low-iron diet
(308.2±58.0 versus 227.4±59.2 µg/L, P<0.005, for males,
and 321.4±56.8 versus 224.3±62.5 µg, P<0.01, for
females). Furthermore, the serum alkaline phosphatase activity, which
indicates the degree of liver damage, in sera of male animals fed a
chow diet was significantly higher than that of littermates fed an
iron-restricted diet (106.3±23.6 versus 61.5±22.2 U/L,
P<0.05). Nevertheless, no significant difference was
observed in females. When the susceptibility of serum lipoproteins to
copper-induced oxidation was examined, it was found that the mean
lag time for the lipoprotein preparations isolated from
iron-restricted mice appeared to be longer than that from control
group littermates of either sex (105.5±16.1 versus 81.7±14.6 minutes,
P<0.025, for males, and 140.1±21.2 versus 97.1±27.6
minutes, P<0.005, for females) (Table 2).
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The effect of low iron intake on the extent of
atherosclerosis in the aortic root and arch of these
animals was also assessed. Morphometric quantification of the area of
lesions revealed that a low-iron diet reduced
atherosclerosis in the aortic root significantly, by
24% and 37% for female (P<0.025) and male
(P<0.005) mice, respectively (Figure 2A). The reduction in lesion area of the
aortic arch was 30% and 44% for female (P<0.01) and male
(P<0.005) animals, respectively (Figure 2B). Perls'
staining of the sectioned aortas revealed that the iron deposition was
less evident in iron-restricted animals (Figure 3). Direct quantification of iron
concentrations in different tissues again revealed that low iron intake
resulted in significant reduction in iron contents of aortic tissue and
heart in both sexes (Table 3), whereas
the effect on liver iron content was evident only in male but not
female mice.
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When the sections of atherosclerotic lesions were
immunostained for the presence of epitopes of MDA-modified
LDL, the results demonstrated that the stains were much stronger in the
sections from control animals (Figure 4),
supporting the idea that iron-catalyzed free radical reaction promotes
the lipid/LDL oxidation in vascular walls. Furthermore, in parallel
with the extent of oxidative modification of LDL in lesions, the titer
of autoantibodies to oxidized LDL in sera of the control mice was
relatively higher than that of littermates in the iron-restricted group
in either sex (P<0.05 for females; P<0.025 for
males) (Figure 5).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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In the present study, apoE-deficient mice were used as an animal model to characterize the role of iron in atherosclerosis. As illustrated in Figure 1
, iron deposition was visible in the endothelium of
intermediate lesions from these mice. When the lesion progressed to a
more advanced plaque, the distribution of iron deposits was extended to
the area within the intima and some in the media as well. These
observations reveal a close association between the severity of the
atherosclerosis and the extent of iron deposition in
apoE-deficient mice. The iron deposits were also present in tissue
sections of liver and heart in an age-dependent manner. Because no iron
stain was detected in the sections from the normal C57BL/6 mice of the
same age, it is unlikely that the iron deposition in the liver and
heart of apoE-deficient mice resulted from the aging process.
Nevertheless, it is not clear whether the iron overload in both tissues
results from the complication of atherosclerosis or is
an independent pathological process.
Additional experiments were conducted to elucidate whether
restriction of dietary iron intake would affect the progression of
atherosclerosis in these animals. As shown in Table 1, receiving a low-iron diet for 3 months did not significantly
affect the concentrations of serum iron or hemoglobin or the hematocrit
level in apoE-deficient mice, indicating that the dietary intervention
did not affect the minimal iron requirement essential for normal
hematopoiesis in these mice. Similar results were reported previously
in a study showing that iron depletion by treatment with
desferrioxamine and iron-deficient diet in C57BL/6 mice for 50 days did
not provoke significant changes in hematocrit and serum iron
level.31 These data may suggest that the amount of iron
present in a chow diet is in excess of that required by these
animals. It was shown that the apoE-deficient mice have high serum
ferritin levels (>200 µg/L), which may be relevant to the iron
depositions and high tissue iron contents observed in these animals.
Nevertheless, the low iron intake appeared to significantly reduce the
level of body iron stores, as shown by the lower serum ferritin in
littermates of the iron-restricted group. To evaluate whether the
low-iron diet benefited the animals by decreasing oxidative stress, the
susceptibility of lipoproteins to in vitro–induced oxidation was
assessed. The result clearly demonstrates that the lag time for
conjugated diene formation was significantly prolonged in lipoproteins
isolated from the iron-restricted group, indicating that dietary
intervention affected the antioxidant status and increased the
oxidation resistance in these animals. Apparently, the present
observation is consistent with a recent study by Salonen et
al,32 who reported that lowering body iron stores by
phlebotomy could lengthen the lag time of serum lipoprotein oxidation
in male smokers. Likewise, when serum alkaline phosphatase activity, a
marker of liver damage, was measured, it was noted that the enzyme
activity was markedly reduced by the low-iron diet in male littermates.
However, the enzyme activity of female mice was not significantly
affected by the dietary intervention. The biochemical mechanism(s)
underlying the sexual difference is not clear. It has been shown that
female inbred mice exhibit higher susceptibility to diet-induced
atherosclerosis.33 We also found that
female apoE-deficient mice fed a chow diet developed more severe
atherosclerotic lesions than male littermates (Figure 2).
Nevertheless, the apoE-deficient mice receiving a low-iron diet
developed smaller lesions in aortic roots and arches than control mice
fed a chow diet in both sexes. Along with the plaque formation, the
iron deposition and the epitopes of MDA-modified LDL were more evident
in lesions of control mice of either sex. Quantitative assessment of
tissue iron further demonstrated that the reduction of iron content was
evident not only in aortas but also in hearts of animals placed on a
low-iron diet. These data clearly indicate that low iron intake reduces
the iron concentrations in vascular tissues and inhibits lesion
progression in these animals.
It is believed that the effect of iron on atherosclerosis is largely dependent on the state of hypercholesterolemia in experimental animals. Consistent with the present study is a report by Araujo et al,34 who demonstrated that an iron overload by intravenous injection of iron dextran in rabbits does not initiate atherosclerosis but augments lesion formation in rabbits fed a high-cholesterol diet. Furthermore, a recent study by Van Lenten et al35 showed that an atherogenic high-cholesterol diet can influence iron homeostasis in mice. It appears that the interplay between lipid and iron is important in determining the extent of tissue damage and atherosclerosis developed in these animals. A previous study demonstrated that the iron chelator desferrioxamine is effective in inhibiting the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells in culture and preventing myointimal proliferative lesions in animals,36 suggesting that iron may affect lesion formation by influencing the proliferative activity of vascular smooth muscle cells. In any event, these observations support the detrimental role of iron in promoting the development of vascular disease. Our data provide an important pathological basis supporting the possible link between the body iron stores and the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Although iron alone may not be sufficient in the initiation of the plaque formation, an increase in iron content may exacerbate the oxidative insults in local tissues and accelerate the progression of the disease.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported by grants from the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, and the National Science Council of Taiwan, ROC. The authors would like to thank Dr J.L. Sullivan for critical review and valuable suggestions on this manuscript.
Received July 27, 1998; revision received November 9, 1998; accepted November 18, 1998.
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 N. Ishizaka, K. Saito, I. Mori, G. Matsuzaki, M. Ohno, and R. Nagai Iron Chelation Suppresses Ferritin Upregulation and Attenuates Vascular Dysfunction in the Aorta of Angiotensin II-Infused Rats Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, November 1, 2005; 25(11): 2282 - 2288. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. L. Sullivan Stored Iron and Vascular Reactivity Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, August 1, 2005; 25(8): 1532 - 1535. [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Zheng, R. Cable, B. Spencer, N. Votto, and S. D. Katz Iron Stores and Vascular Function in Voluntary Blood Donors Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, August 1, 2005; 25(8): 1577 - 1583. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. S. Meir and E. Leitersdorf Atherosclerosis in the Apolipoprotein E-Deficient Mouse: A Decade of Progress Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, June 1, 2004; 24(6): 1006 - 1014. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 B. Wolff, H. Volzke, J. Ludemann, D. Robinson, D. Vogelgesang, A. Staudt, C. Kessler, J. B. Dahm, U. John, and S. B. Felix Association Between High Serum Ferritin Levels and Carotid Atherosclerosis in the Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP) Stroke, February 1, 2004; 35(2): 453 - 457. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A. M. Troen, E. Lutgens, D. E. Smith, I. H. Rosenberg, and J. Selhub The atherogenic effect of excess methionine intake PNAS, December 9, 2003; 100(25): 15089 - 15094. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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V. S Chekanov, M. Zargarian, I. Baibekov, P. Karakozov, G. Tchekanov, J. Hare, V. Nikolaychik, T. Bajwa, and M. Akhtar Deferoxamine-fibrin accelerates angiogenesis in a rabbit model of peripheral ischemia Vascular Medicine, August 1, 2003; 8(3): 157 - 162. [Abstract] [PDF]
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G. Ramakrishna, T. W Rooke, and L. T Cooper Iron and peripheral arterial disease: revisiting the iron hypothesis in a different light Vascular Medicine, August 1, 2003; 8(3): 203 - 210. [Abstract] [PDF]
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S. M. Day, D. Duquaine, L. V. Mundada, R. G. Menon, B. V. Khan, S. Rajagopalan, and W. P. Fay Chronic Iron Administration Increases Vascular Oxidative Stress and Accelerates Arterial Thrombosis Circulation, May 27, 2003; 107(20): 2601 - 2606. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 R Surber, H H Sigusch, H Kuehnert, and H R Figulla Haemochromatosis (HFE) gene C282Y mutation and the risk of coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction: a study in 1279 patients undergoing coronary angiography J. Med. Genet., May 1, 2003; 40(5): e58 - 58. [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Ishizaka, K. Saito, H. Mitani, I. Yamazaki, M. Sata, S.-i. Usui, I. Mori, M. Ohno, and R. Nagai Iron Overload Augments Angiotensin II-Induced Cardiac Fibrosis and Promotes Neointima Formation Circulation, October 1, 2002; 106(14): 1840 - 1846. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. M. Fernandez-Real, A. Lopez-Bermejo, and W. Ricart Cross-Talk Between Iron Metabolism and Diabetes Diabetes, August 1, 2002; 51(8): 2348 - 2354. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S.-H. Juan, T.-S. Lee, K.-W. Tseng, J.-Y. Liou, S.-K. Shyue, K. K. Wu, and L.-Y. Chau Adenovirus-Mediated Heme Oxygenase-1 Gene Transfer Inhibits the Development of Atherosclerosis in Apolipoprotein E-Deficient Mice Circulation, September 25, 2001; 104(13): 1519 - 1525. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. J. Duffy, E. S. Biegelsen, M. Holbrook, J. D. Russell, N. Gokce, J. F. Keaney Jr, and J. A. Vita Iron Chelation Improves Endothelial Function in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease Circulation, June 12, 2001; 103(23): 2799 - 2804. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. W. Choi, S. K. Kim, and S. H. Pai Changes in Serum Lipid Concentrations during Iron Depletion and after Iron Supplementation Ann. Clin. Lab. Sci., April 1, 2001; 31(2): 151 - 156. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. L. Sullivan Iron and the Genetics of Cardiovascular Disease Circulation, September 21, 1999; 100(12): 1260 - 1263. [Full Text] [PDF]
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